It is never easy to judge a person, even with all of the facts in place. And so we often leave it to history to make the final judgments. But history rarely gets things right. Although the science of history is all about facts, the modern conception of history is rarely accurate. The perception of past events is so tainted by centuries old propaganda that it can be difficult to discern the truth from our society’s own, colored interpretations. Fortunately, true historians never give up the search from the truth, and are now challenging the long held beliefs of pub quiz experts and so called ‘folk’ history. New evidence is continually dispelling our common misconceptions about legendary figures and painting them in new lights. I say let history judge these people no longer, but let us judge them on the facts instead.

Here are history’s most misunderstood figures. They are all people who have been inaccurately portrayed by the public consciousness.

10. Saint Patrick

Legend portrays Saint Patrick as an Irishman who banished all the snakes from Ireland. In fact he was born in Cumbria, England and was first taken to Ireland as a slave. After several years of servitude he escaped and returned to Cumbria and was ordained as a priest but traveled back to Ireland as a missionary. In fact there were no snakes in Ireland at that time and this part of the legend may in fact refer to the druids who used a serpent as their symbol.

Saint Patrick converted several thousand people in Ireland and Scotland to Christianity, most notably the ‘sons of Irish kings’. However, he was not solely responsibly for the conversion as is commonly believed.

9. Pontius Pilate

Pontius Pilate was the Roman Prefect of Judea from 26–36 AD. Many people have blamed Pilate for the crucifixion of Jesus, being the man who officially sentenced him. However, the bible clearly ascertains that he defended Jesus and believed him to be innocent. Pilate said that he saw nothing treasonous in Jesus’ actions. He gave the populous of the city a chance to free him, offering a choice between him and the criminal Barabbas. Unfortunately, his plan backfired slightly. The claims of treason had been made by the Jewish population and Pilate was politically powerless to do anything about it.

8. Ulysses S. Grant

One of the most celebrated Generals of the American Civil War, Ulysses S. Grant was well respected, even adored by the American public in the years before his election as U.S President. However, his presidency was marred by corruption and scandal. Grant’s reputation was destroyed and history recorded him as one of America’s worst presidents as well as a drunkard.

In recent years, however, historians have begun to clear Grant’s name. Although his presidency clearly was a disaster, the rest of his career, particularly his military career, was outstanding. Grant has been highlighted as a military genius. What’s more, personal accounts of his character suggest that he was not a drunkard but a very polite and clever man, if a little shy.

Grant was once accused of being an anti-Semite but later cleared his name. In fact he was an outspoken supporter of the civil rights movement.

7. La Malinche

Dora Marina, or La Malinche, is one of the most mysterious and intriguing figures in Mexican history. As both translator and mistress to Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortez she played a controversial role in the Spanish invasion of Mexico and the defeat of the Aztecs.

La Malinche was the daughter of a Mayan tribal leader. She was taken captive by enemies of her father and sold into slavery. It was as a slave that she was presented to Cortez and given to him as a gift. It is said that Cortez could not resist her beauty and took her as his companion and advisor. It is in this respect that she has become an icon of feminine power. Her command of several native Mexican languages was useful to the Spanish who used her as a translator during their expedition, but La Malinche is said to have held a power of Cortez, approaching mythical proportions.

La Malinche has been portrayed in various ways in Mexican history and opinion varies over her importance and her intentions. Some describe her as a traitor to the native Mexicans, even saying that she was an evil woman. Her arrival with Cortez seemed to fit the prophecy of the downfall of the Aztec, leading to her portrayal as a goddess, even as a whore of Babylon type figure. Some suggest that she had a personal grudge against the Aztec and actively plotted their downfall with Cortez for this reason. It is possible that she felt betrayed by the native population herself and that she had become embittered by her slavery.

Others see her very differently, suggesting that she was a calming influence on Cortez. It is said that the destruction of the Aztecs and the outlying peoples would have been much more severe were it not for La Malinche. In this respect she can be seen as a savior, often compared to the Virgin Mary.

The truth behind Dora Marina’s character has been lost to history but she remains a potent figure. Scholars continue to debate her true motivations and the complexities of her relationship with Cortez.

6. King Canute

Canute the Great to his friends, this Danish king became king of England in 1017. Canute is largely forgotten as an English king and is remembered simply for attempting to hold back the tide. This has forever branded him as an idiot, for obvious reasons.

In actually, Canute the Great was indeed a mighty and wise king. At the height of his power he ruled Denmark, Norway and England, and commanded loyalty from areas of Sweden and Ireland and Scotland. This made him one of the most powerful men in medieval Europe. Apparently the anecdote about holding back the tide is true. Canute never really thought that he could command the forces of nature, in fact he was making a point, saying that no king is as powerful as God. After proclaiming his Christianity in this way, Canute placed his crown atop a crucifix and never wore it again.

5. Saint Nicholas

Saint Nick, otherwise known as Santa Claus, does not live and never has lived in Lapland or the North Pole. He actually lived in southern Turkey between the years 270 and 346 AD. He is the patron saint of children, amongst other things, and was known for his generosity. With Christmas trees being a German creation, Saint Nick left his gifts in people’s shoes. Usually these were coins left anonymously. Today, the tradition of leaving one’s shoes outside at Christmas is still observed.

The biggest gift he ever gave was to a poor man and his three daughters. The man had no dowry to pay for his daughters and was worried that if they never married they would have no choice but to become prostitutes. Hearing this, Saint Nick visited the poor man at night and anonymously threw three purses filled with gold through his window. Because of this, Saint Nicholas became the patron saint of pawnbrokers. Traditionally, three golden baubles are hung in the window of pawn shops to represent the three purses of money.

On another occasion, Saint Nick rescued two children from an evil butcher who intended to cut them up and sell them as ham.

The association between Saint Nick and Christmas probably developed from Saint Nicholas Day, a traditional day of gift-giving in early December. However, Saint Basil is also often associated with gifts during the Christmas period.

4. Robin Hood

Tales of Robin hood have been popular in England ever since the Victorian era but have little basis in fact. The Victorians exaggerated an existing myth to include Robin Hood’s support of King Richard against the evil Prince John. This served to promote the positive image of the monarchy and support the heroic ideal of the common man protecting his noble rulers. Even without these additions, the myth seems unlikely and has never found any solid foundation in history. It is widely doubted that there ever was a man named Robin Hood.

Some scholars believe that the name originates from the phrase ‘robbing hodd’, referring to a thieving band of men. It is thought that a number of outlaws did live in the forests of what is now South Yorkshire but whether these men ever stole from the rich to give to the poor is debatable. It is most likely that they stole to support their own families after being forcibly evicted from their homes in Nottinghamshire.

The naming of Robin Hood as the Earl of Loxley is another modern addition to the myth, as is his apparent involvement in the Crusades.

3. Oliver Cromwell

Oliver Cromwell was a puritanical dictator who ruled England following his victory in the English Civil War. He created the English Commonwealth after deposing the king. Whilst the king had been overthrown for disbanding parliament and imposing his own absolute monarchy, Cromwell, as Lord Protector of England did the same. He famously dissolved the elected parliament claiming them to be corrupt and appointed his own ‘council of saints’ in their place. Whilst he is remembered as a great figure in English democracy it could be said that he was more of a tyrannical puritan than a republican hero.

In Ireland Cromwell is remembered as a butcher and a conqueror following his campaigns to bring the country under English control. He is accused of a number of atrocities against the Irish people, in particular the Catholics, which are often described as genocidal.

On the night of Cromwell’s death, in 1658, a great storm ravaged England. It was said that this was the Devil coming to take his soul. That’s hardly the epitaph of a fair and Godly man. And yet in 2002 a poll undertaken by the BBC voted him as one of the top 10 Britons of all time.

2. Dracula

Vlad the Impaler was a medieval Romanian prince famed for his brutal torture techniques and vicious lust for battle. His family name was Draculea, meaning ‘son of the dragon’. In legend, he is said to have turned against God after the death of his wife, becoming the evil undead. This myth lead to the modern interpretation of Count Dracula and other Vampire stories. In reality, Vlad was not a count but a prince. Whilst he was born in Transylvania, Vlad was Crown Prince of Wallachia, a country in the south of present day Romania, bordering Transylvania. He frequently made attacks on Transylvania, which was a contested region, and slaughtered many there for not accepting his authority.

Whilst Dracula is commonly associated with evil he is sometimes seen as being somewhat of a Christian hero. He was a member of the ‘order of the dragon’, an order of Hungarian knights sworn to protect Christian lands from the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Located between Christian Hungary and the huge Ottoman Empire, Wallachia was on the front line in the Ottoman expansion into Europe. Vlad’s barbarous torture techniques have earned him a place in history but they were not altogether unusual in medieval Europe. They may also have been exaggerated by his enemies. Impalement was supposedly his preferred method of execution, but this was common practice at the time. Reports that he burned entire villages to the ground are also unsurprising. In Western Europe, however, tales of Vlad’s attacks across the Balkans led to him being branded a ‘bloodthirsty’ tyrant. In Russia, on the other hand, stories of his brutality were equally rife, but most portrayed him as being a strong ruler and justified in his actions. These Russian accounts tell that he nailed hats to ambassadors’ heads.

The idea that Dracula was immortal may be derived from his own propaganda or that of the Ottomans, who found it difficult to put an end to his insurgency. When he finally was killed in battle, the Ottomans removed his head and placed it on display as proof of his death. It was impaled on a spike in a final twist of irony.

1. Richard the Lion Heart

The Coeur de Lion is widely considered to be one of the greatest ever English kings. Not bad to say he was actually French. Of course Richard was a king of England, there’s no denying that. He was one of the great Plantagenet Kings that ruled England and much of France simultaneously. But what is not commonly known is that he stole the throne from his father, in a war of revolt involving his many upstart brothers. After going to such lengths to secure the throne, Richard actually thought very little of England (seeing it as the seat of his title but not of his power) and visited very rarely, preferring to spend his time in his French territories or fighting overseas in the Crusades.

Richard’s role in the Crusades, defending his family’s kingdom in Jerusalem from the Muslim armies of Saladin, is what earned him a place in the history books. He is often portrayed as a paladin, a heroic Christian warrior. This image was largely helped by his own ego, comparing himself to the legendary King Arthur, a mistake that the Victorians would later repeat. Richard’s religious intolerance was not limited to his campaigns in the east, however. At home he was just as vicious, instigating an early holocaust of London’s Jewish population. Thousands of Jews were flogged, beaten to death or burned alive. Others were forcibly baptized. Richard then went on to revoke a decree protecting the Jews, allowing a second massacre in York.

For all his skills as a crusader, Richard was only partially successful in his quest. On his return journey he was also captured, not by the great armies of Saladin, but by the Duke of Austria who accused Richard of murder of his cousin. Richard must have known that the Austrians were out to get him (perhaps he had a guilty conscience) because he attempted to disguise himself as an ordinary knight. Legend tells that Richard disguised himself as a peasant but in reality he was far too vein to be seen without his expensive jewelry. In the end it was his taste for roast chicken (then an expensive delicacy) that gave him away. Richard’s territories were then subject to outrageously high taxes as his mother sought to raise the ransom money and his brother John, in England, attempted to raise enough money to persuade Richard’s captors to keep him locked up.

When Richard eventually did return he spent several years suppressing the revolts that had begun during his captivity. It is believed that this was done through campaigns of incredible violence. In one account, Richard even reduced himself to looting; taking a hoard of Roman gold that had been found by a local peasant.

At least on his deathbed Richard finally found kindness. He had the archer that had shot him brought to his side and personally forgave him. However, as soon as Richard died, the archer was taken outside and flogged to death.

Richard the lion heart is remembered as a Christian hero and a great, iconic English king. If anything, he was a violent egomaniac who struggled to keep order in his realm at the best of times.

The creatures have been judged on their prowess, their incredible attributes and their success as species.

10. The Malheur National Forest Fungus

This fungus is so large that it has claimed the title of the largest organism on the planet. Whilst the Great Barrier Reef is actually a collection of separate organisms, this fungus is linked underground effectively making it one huge mushroom. It is so large that it spans 9 square kilometres (2,200 acres) of the Malheur National Forrest in Oregon. On the surface, this vast fungal colony is not so impressive to look at, sprouting only small visible mushrooms, but belowground it is the largest fungal colony in existence.

9. Paraceratherium

The largest land mammal in history, the Paraceratherum lived in Asia around 20 million years ago. At seven and a half meters (25 ft) tall they were larger than any species of mammoth and weighed as much as an average sized sauropod dinosaur. This height was used to take leaves from the tops of trees in the lush forests in which they lived.

Despite appearing to be something of a cross between an elephant and a giraffe, Paraceratherum were actually related to rhinos. Many believe that they would have carried the same thickly armored hides as their modern progenitors, making them both big and tough. During their time on earth there were no predators capable of taking down this massive beast.

8. The Cockroach

Ah, the cockroach, one of the humblest of nature’s creations. It’s hardly the most beautiful creature on Earth, nor the smartest or the most fearsome predator. But it is a survivor.

It is widely believed that cockroaches are capable of surviving a nuclear war. Whilst they are not as resistant to the effects of radiation as some other insects, it is true that they are fifteen times more resistant than humans. Cockroaches also have other amazing abilities, like being able to go without oxygen for up to 45 minutes. They can also survive without food for a month and are capable of eating almost anything, including the glue on the back of stamps. It’s not pretty but if it works don’t knock it.

To date, around 4,000 distinct species of cockroach have been identified.

7. Hadrosaurs

The term Hadrosaur refers to members of the Hadrosaurid family of dinosaurs. There are several distinct species of Hadrosaur, which results from the incredible success of Hadrosaurs throughout the age of the dinosaurs. Hadrosaurs became the most common family of dinosaurs and lived in huge herds across the world. They were preyed upon by many carnivorous species but their numbers rarely diminished. Because of this they have been called the cattle of the dinosaur era.

The incredible success of the Hadrosaur comes from the unique jaw structure by which they can be identified. Hadrosaur jaws were elongated and flat, leading to the nickname ‘duck billed dinosaurs’. These contained literally thousands of teeth and were perfect for chewing plants. Combined with a long digestive tract, stored between the hallmark wide hips, this made hadrosaurs capable of eating plants that other dinosaurs could not, particularly waxy needles. Hadrosaurs are also thought to have eaten rotten wood to extract the nutrients of the fungus living inside. Other dinosaurs relied largely on stomach stones to digest their food but with chewing down to an art, Hadrosaurs had the energy needed to outrun its predators. They also sought safety in numbers, living in large herds. Some scientists speculate that these would have stripped an area clean of plant life before moving off.

Hadrosaurs varied greatly in size. Most were capable of walking on either two or four legs and could lift themselves on their larger back legs to reach higher food sources. The major difference between Hadrosaur species is the presence (or lack of) a cranial crests, protruding from the backs of their skulls. These were thought to be decorative and sexual in function, hence their variation between species of Hadrosaur.

Hadrosaurs have also been called ‘bird hipped’ dinosaurs as they share a common hip configuration with birds. The Hadrosaur family was not one of the species that evolved into modern birds but this was crucial in proving the common ancestry between dinosaurs and modern birds.

Hadrosaurs were most common during the Cretaceous era (which is when their evolved eating habits and digestive capabilities would have been most useful) when their numbers would have been in the billions.

6. The Terror Birds

Sounds ridiculous, right? Birds were only ever scary in the Alfred Hitchcock film and hardly then. But believe it or not the dominant predators in South America for 60 million years were in fact birds. Giant, 10 foot tall, flightless terror birds. It is thought that terror birds evolved from the dinosaurs and hunted the plains and forests of South America from shortly after the fall of the dinosaurs to only two million years ago. These birds also spread into North America and the largest specimen has been found in Texas. In 2006, a skull was discovered in Patagonia. This skull is believed to belong to a previously unknown species of terror bird, and scientists predict that it would have been capable of swallowing an averagely sized dog.

Terror birds were big, vicious and fast. Although scientists cannot be sure, they estimate that the larger of the terror birds would have been capable of speeds in excess of 30 miles per hour.

South America was not the only place to have been home to giant birds. Aside from the Ostrich and Emu, Australia has been home to many large birds throughout history. These would have no doubt been encountered by the early inhabitants of the area. In New Zealand, early Polynesian settlers came across the Moa, twelve foot tall, herbivorous birds. Amazingly these lasted until around 1500, when they were hunted to extinction. Unbelievably, until the arrival of the Maori, the Moa were hunted by a species of giant eagle. The Haast’s Eagle had a wingspan of ten feet and was the largest eagle to have ever lived.

5. Tyrannosaurus Rex

The Tyrannosaurus Rex or T-Rex was one of the largest carnivorous dinosaurs and, as such, one of the largest land predators to have ever existed. The name means ‘tyrannical lizard king’ and has helped in the public perception of the T-Rex as the most badass of all the dinosaurs. It is widely believed that the T-Rex was natures greatest ever predator, although some now believe that it was actually a very large scavenger.

Members of the Tyrannosaurus family have been found all around the world but the T-Rex lived particularly in what is now western North America. They would have lived alongside Ceratopsians, such as the Triceratops. They would most likely have preyed mostly upon large herds of Hadrosaurs, although some believe that all Tyrannosaurids were primarily scavengers. Tyrannosaurs are considered to be unique amongst carnivorous dinosaurs for their tiny forelimbs, huge skulls and short snouts.

The Tyrannosaurus Rex was the largest of the Tyrannosaurids. The largest specimen ever discovered measured 12.8 meters (48ft) long and 4 meters (13ft) tall at the hips. The largest T-Rex skull is 1.5 meters (5ft) long and the largest tooth is 30 centimeters long (including the root), the longest tooth of any dinosaur. Despite it’s size, the T-Rex was also an incredibly fast creature, although scientist debate exactly how fast.

The T-Rex lived in the late cretaceous period, meaning that it was around for the big extinction that wiped out almost all of the dinosaurs.

4. Spinosaurus Aegyptiacus

The Spinosaurus Aegyptiacus was a large carnivorous dinosaur, distinguishable for its crocodilian jaw and the large sail believed to have protruded from its back. This sail was supported by bone protrusions from the vertebrae and may have been used as a sexual display, similar to a peacocks tail. As such it may have been brightly colored or flushed with blood.

The Spinosaurus lived in North Africa and, at 16-18 meters (52-59ft) and weighing up to 10 tons, is the largest carnivorous dinosaur ever discovered. As such it is possibly the largest carnivorous land animal to have ever existed. It is believed that it died out in the early cretaceous period. However, a lack of evidence makes any supposition about this creature difficult.

The Spinosaurus Aegypticus (or ‘Egyptian Spine Lizard’) was discovered by German paleontologistErnst Stromer who unearthed its skeleton in the Egyptian desert in 1912. Unfortunately, many of the bones were damaged in transit to Germany and later the remaining bones were destroyed by an Allied bombing raid during World War II. The lack of material evidence pertaining to the Spinosaurus, combined with its unlikely size and appearance, has cast doubt over its existence for many years. However, recent finds in Morocco are believed to be of the same species or a closely related subspecies.

3. The Crocodile

The crocodile is the oldest living predator in existence. It has survived for millions of years, unchanged since the time of the dinosaurs and is still considered to be one of the most lethal killers in nature. The fact that it has barely evolved at all in millions of years is proof that it’s design is so perfect and so efficient that it cannot be improved upon. Crocodiles are essentially a trap animal, like most spiders. They lay in wait for their prey, meaning that they need expend no more energy than is necessary. It is probably this strategy that allowed them to survive the extinction events that wiped out the dinosaurs, and to survive the cold of the ice age too.

In their 200 million years, the only way in which crocodiles have changed is their size. Some members of the crocodile family have adapted to be smaller than others, the alligator included. This is a common trend. Millions of years ago there would have been many other larger species of crocodile. The largest recorded modern crocodile was approximately 25 feet in length, but fossil records show that they were once much larger. Crocodiles and Alligators are found across the globe, wherever a suitable habitat can be found.

2. Mankind

It would be naive not to think that mankind is not one of nature’s greatest creations. However it would be equally naive to think that humans are the greatest creature to ever walk the earth. Relatively speaking, mankind is a new addition to the Earth and, although we have made great advances in almost every field, we have yet to prove ourselves in the greater scheme of things. Scientific learning and artistic expression are very interesting and all, but they are unlikely to save you in a battle against a T-Rex. Advanced weaponry is a huge step forward, granted, and has been mans best friend ever since the development of the spear. But can it really compare to some of natures other great creations?

Of course mankind is a great species. How could we describe ourselves as anything but? We have the ability to predict the weather, to alter the landscape and to travel to other worlds. We are also now on the verge of creating other forms of life, by means of genetic manipulation and advanced robotics. But nature is about one thing and one thing alone: survival. We are the first species to have the ability to destroy ourselves and that surely can’t be a good thing. As we have become more advanced we have also become more fragile, becoming too dependent on our complex society and complex technological systems. It is widely believed that something as simple as the breakdown of our communication infrastructure could doom us to extinction. For all of our advances can we really say that we could withstand the natural disasters that other species have faced? Can we say with certainty that we will still exist in several million years time, unaltered and still kicking ass like the crocodiles? Only time will tell.

One consolation is that if mankind does become extinct, we will leave behind a legacy in the form of our great buildings and monuments. However, recent thoughts on this matter are that within one thousand years of mans extinction, almost all evidence of our civilization will have crumbled away. Buildings will crumble, cars will rust and nature will simply get to work on it’s next great innovation.

Mankind is great, yes, but by no means are we eternal.

1. Ants and Termites

Despite common belief, ants and termites are not closely related. Both live in complex social structures and have evolved into cast systems, comprising of workers, soldiers and breeders. But despite their similarities, ants are actually more closely related to wasps than they are to termites. However, the two species are both categorized in the order Hymenoptera because of their tiered social structure. Ant colonies typically have only one queen capable of breeding but termites often have an entire army of breeders.

Whilst ants have clearly won the turf war between the two, termites are clearly the greatest builders. Their nests are usually built in the branches of trees and form into mounds over time. Some termite mounds are built in ingenious sail, or gravestone shapes. These always face north-south so that the catch the morning and evening sun but stay cool during the day. Termite nests are specially designed so as to provide an air-conditioned effect, and to collect condensation for the termites to drink. Termite mounds also often contain special chambers for growing fungi. Some species of ant also farm fungus and will collect leaves for the fungus to absorb. Termite colonies can contain thousands, sometimes millions of termites. They can be compared to huge, eco-friendly and perfectly ordered cities.

Some ants also farm caterpillars. The caterpillars are herded to feeding areas during the day and are kept inside the ants nest at night. They produce honeydew when massaged by the ants. A similar relationship exists with some aphids, who produce a sugary substance on demand when tapped by the ant’s antennae.

With ant and termite populations around the world being so high, and their civilizations being so perfectly evolved, it could be said that it is these species that truly rule the world. As farmers, scavengers and hunters they are highly skilled and can find food in even the most desolate of environments. Vast armies protect their colonies from invaders and even larger armies of workers are capable of acting as one large organism. When the different castes of ant and termite work together there is nothing they cannot achieve.

However, in the 2009 world, killing a criminal is more and more being considered a barbaric, even evil practice with revenge instead of retribution being the sole motivating factor. The idea that revenge alone is the only reason the worst criminals are executed is ludicrous, as the sustaining belief of “eye for an eye” has had many valid supporting arguments throughout history along with valid, tangible results. Let’s explore ten of the most preeminent and credible arguments that justify what should be the most difficult thing any human being can do: cutting another’s life short.

10. More Humane than other Forms of Punishment

Compared to “incapacitation”, which is a kinder phrase for lobotomy, or sentencing a criminal to solitary confinement for the next 25-50 years, executing a criminal may seem like a more humane option. A criminal sentenced to life without parole will never again see daylight, and will have to consider the consequences of their crime until the day they die. From an emotional standpoint, ending this elongated, intense level of suffering for a prisoner could be considered a mercy.

9. Life Imprisonment Changes

Surprisingly, life in prison without the possibility of parole does not always mean a criminal will truly remain in prison until the day they die. Stacey Lannert, convicted for the 1990 murder of her sexually-abusive father, served 18 years of a life without parole sentence before receiving a full pardon by outbound Missouri governor Matt Blunt in January 2009. Lisa Connelly, one of the seven responsible for the 1993 Florida murder of Bobby Kent, was able to reduce her sentence of life in prison to 22 years upon appeal. In 2004, Connelly was released, despite being one of the primary planners of the Bobby Kent slaying. Through time, law changes, political authority figures change, and points of view on the death penalty change. Given enough time, yesterday’s child-killer may become today’s “lifer”, then tomorrow’s parolee.

8. Cost

A common, even credible argument amidst anti-death penalty proponents regards the financial implications of executing a prisoner, which is far more expensive than simply imprisoning them for life. Statistically, this is true. Deathpenaltyinfo.org reports that in the state of Maryland, it can cost up to $37 million to execute a death row inmate rather than keeping them alive and imprisoned annually at around $1 million per year. However, while the execution figures factor in costs of an inmate’s numerous appeals, the figures representing the cost to keep a prisoner alive per year do not. “Lifers” are equally likely to pursue the same avenues as death row inmates to overturn their fate, which can be equally expensive. Given that those sentenced to life without parole have an indefinite period of time to appeal, unlike a death row inmate, in the long run the financial cost of housing a lifer will easily surpass the cost of housing a death row inmate.

7. Necessity

Under the law of most militaries throughout history, the crimes of murder, mutiny, treason, and desertion during a war time warrant a mandatory, (and even on the spot) death sentence. However, during a time of war, where survival of an army and even the civilization that army is represents is at stake, death may be the only reasonable punitive tactic to employ. Under full abolition of the death penalty, some of the criminals who would see lives lost through their lawlessness or cowardice would have to waste the time of those fighting the war through the lengthy judicial process, and in war, time and manpower makes all the difference.

6. The Fairness of the Death Row Process

In the United States, the process of convicting and executing a criminal is an exhaustive and lengthy one which definitely lends a little validity to the fairness of the process. The vast majority of criminals sentenced to death have several avenues available to contest their condemnation, from their state’s governor, their states court of appeals, Amnesty International, and even the United States Supreme Court.

Even after a criminal has been condemned to die, some have been known to appeal the decision for up to three decades before finally receiving a date of execution. Even then, the smallest technicality can result in a stay of execution, a commutation of the sentence, or as in Glen Chapman’s case, a full release from prison. While attitudes of the death penalty naturally vary from legal system to legal system worldwide, all legal systems generally acknowledge the value of a person’s life, and take the decision to end a human’s life very seriously. Errors will occur in any justice system, but the through due process of executions, above the process of any other punitive measure, may make the margin for error in capital punishment cases that much smaller. It’s far more likely that those facing death are actually guilty of their crime as a result.

5. Removal of a Threat to Society

Even though Saddam Hussein was captured and tried via an Iraqi tribunal in 2005, he still remained a threat; one of his tribunal judges was assassinated before the trial even began. Charles “Lucky” Luciano, possibly the most successful organized crime leader in history, didn’t retire after being deported to Italy for the remainder of his life; he continued to control American organized crime long after his exile. Pablo Escobar, a criminal so ruthless he allegedly mailed witnesses invitations to their own funerals, was not only able to control his criminal empire from a luxurious prison, but he was also able to escape with a disturbing level of ease. Some criminals are truly above the law, in that their influence can reach the outside world even if they are behind bars. For this reason, some criminals are simply too dangerous to live at all.

4. Religious Doctrine

The doctrines of the world’s majority religions, which is to say the Bible, the Torah, and the Quran, have occurrences where the death penalty is not only supported, but staunchly endorsed. If the Bible and Torah are any indication, “An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” (Exodus 21:23-25) makes it very clear what a religious conservative’s opinion on the death penalty should be. In seeing a religious conservative’s point of view, who are they to argue with the word of God? As a result, the death penalty has and will continue to be one of the strongest arguments for death penalty, especially in countries where religious doctrine has a strong influence on legal doctrine, such as countries within the Middle East, Israel, and even the United States.

3. Deterrent to Crime

The film “The Usual Suspects” suggests that criminals fear the enigmatic “Keyser Soze” more than anything in the world, but that’s just a movie. In reality, the words “Singapore Justice” can make even the most hardened criminal cry like a baby, and it has. In Singapore, drug and gun running, weapons infractions, and murder can all carry a mandatory death sentence, and the Singapore legal system will hardly blink while passing it down. Singaporean law isn’t just tough on capital punishment; smoking a cigarette in a no-smoking area can easily net an offender a $1,000 fine.

We could easily pass this attitude off as barbaric and unnecessary…if it didn’t actually work. The crime rate gap between Singapore and the United States is rather vast; in fact Singapore has one of the lowest crime rates in the world. In a country where smuggling over 50 grams of heroin is certain to result in the same punishment as slaughtering another human being, obviously, a criminal has to decide if breaking the law at all is really worth their life. The United States justice system does not guarantee death to a criminal in the same way Singapore’s justice system guarantees it. For a murderer with strong evidence against them, chances are there is no plea bargain to commute the offense, no twenty years of appeals, no governors who will swoop in at the 11th hour to grant clemency for the condemned. As evidenced by Singapore’s low crime rate, simply having a “law-bide or die” stance, backed up through examples, may be the most efficient and cheapest known way to prevent capital crimes.

2. Retribution

Forget the financial cost of executing a criminal; forget the legal obligations to rid society of an incorrigible, violent lawbreaker. Forget all arguments against and for death penalty, and the people who wage this war of beliefs on the internet, in print, and in courtrooms. Forget the rights of the criminal, forget the judge, forget the legal aspect of trying and punishing a criminal completely.

As long as you remember the victims.

While what constitutes an offense punishable by death differs around the globe, there is still one constant between these offenses: someone is harmed. With murder being the worst of all offenses, the victim is far from the only one to suffer. The family and friends of a victim will have to live with not only the pain of losing a loved one, but they must recognize that the person responsible for their loss still lives while the victim does not. Long after a death row sentence has been handed down, a criminal still eats, breathes, and in the case of criminals such as notorious serial killer Ted Bundy, even father children. If it’s infuriating for the average person to know that serial rapist and murderer Ted Bundy was actually privileged enough to procreate, imagine how infuriating it would be for the family of one of Bundy’s victims to know the same thing.

Victims of murder cannot avenge themselves, only the law and those closest to the victim can do this. A victim’s family feels, rightfully so, that they are obligated to attain justice for the victim. This isn’t justice in the traditional sense, but retribution. If you’ve (hopefully) never lost a loved one to violence, consider for a moment the person you love most is taken away from you because a criminal wanted their money, or just wanted to know what it felt like to take a life. Maybe you’d want to see such a person dead, maybe you wouldn’t, but regardless of race, color, or creed, the thing you’d probably want most is a little payback. I don’t imagine there’d be anyway you could truly have your mind at ease without some level of retribution.

It isn’t possible to bring back a loved one lost to violence, but bringing peace of mind, a remarkably priceless thing, may be the only true consolation a legal system can provide.

1. Justice

“May the punishment fit the crime.” At the risk of being biased, this is definitely the best definition of justice that has ever existed or ever will exist.

A desire for justice is one of the inherent qualities of most humans, and it prevents society from falling into a despotic chaos where the average, peaceful person would be subject to the anger, violence, and madness of criminals. A society’s law, and the justice that is dispensed by its hands, is ultimately what keeps the citizenry of that society safe at night if anything does.

In places where the death penalty is an option, it is one of the cornerstones of justice.

For the sake of society’s stability, fair and swift justice must always exist, and the complete removal of people who would destroy that society through crime is absolutely necessary. The death penalty serves this purpose better than any other form of punishment, as it ultimately ensures that a criminal can never harm another person again. From the perspective of justice, the death penalty serves any given populace by erasing its worst element: the criminal one.

There are countless arguments raging about the death penalty in venues ranging from the dinner table to the Supreme Court, and some of them simply make you wonder if the death penalty truly is the right thing to do. Here are ten of the most common and best arguments against administering the ultimate form of judicial retribution.

10. Geographical Bias

The death penalty is not legal in every American state, nor is it legal in every worldwide country. In fact, the majority of countries and continents in the world either have a full ban on the death penalty, have excluded the death penalty for every crime short of crimes against humanity, or have the death penalty but choose to almost never administer it.

If one criminal kills two families of four in Calgary, Canada, and another is a pre-meditated cop-killer is the state of Texas, legally, the first criminal has a 0% chance of execution while the second criminal pretty much has a 100% chance of execution. Two reprehensible crimes, but the perpetrator of the worst of the two crimes will not be punished to the same extent as his counterpart. Not sure how this is fair.

9. Financial Bias

In at least America, if you can afford the right lawyer, you’ve got the best legal system in the world. As we’ve learned from celebrities, businessmen, and possibly even political figures in the past, a person can get away with almost anything with the right amount of stature or money. As an example, regardless of O.J. Simpson’s true innocence or guilt in the murders of which he was accused, it is a commonly held belief that without the assistance of Johnny Cochrane, Robert Shapiro, and various other legal experts Simpson had retained, he would’ve been found guilty of the murders of Nicole Brown and Rob Goldman for certain. At the time, pleading not guilty to double murder in California carried with it only two punishments: life imprisonment and execution. With the money to afford some of the best lawyers in the country, people who know how juries tick and have virtuoso skill in creating reasonable doubt, the outcome just might’ve been different.

8. Innocents

Folks, contrary to popular belief and as the advent of DNA evidence has proven to us, not everyone who is imprisoned is guilty of the crime of which they were convicted. In 2008, Glen Chapman, who spent 13 years on death row, was set free due to the discovery that an investigator from his first trial withheld critical evidence. Another inmate, John Ballard, was released from death row after a judge ruled his case should’ve never even come to initial trial. What is scary isn’t the thought that a man could spend over a decade waiting to die for a crime they didn’t commit, it’s how many times its probably actually happened, and how responsible the legal system could be for the deaths of the same innocent people it’s designed to protect.

7. Gender Bias

“Since 1977, nearly 1,100 inmates have been executed in the U.S.; only 11 were women, “according to sentencing.typead.com. While this could be attributed to the fact that less women are in prison than men, from the eyes of a jury, it is also possible that a woman who commits a violent crime still cannot be seen as threatening as a man who commits the same crime, so electing a death sentence for a female criminal would be harder.

6. Contradictory to the Constitution

The American constitution vehemently and bluntly outlaws the use of cruel and unusual punishment as an option during the process of enforcing justice upon criminals. However, the electric chair, which has been known to combust people sentenced to die by it, was the choice method of execution for nearly a century. While the lethal injection is currently the choice form of execution, the electric chair may still be employed, as can a firing squad or a hanging. The government continues to search for a humane method of taking a life whereas the act of taking a life is by definition inhumane.

5. The Punishment Doesn’t Always Fit the Crime

According to the Sydney Morning Herald, in 2003, 23 year-old Australian Nguyen Tuong Van reportedly “wept and punched through a wall” when he was arrested for attempting to smuggle 396.2 grams into Singapore. Perhaps Mr. Van was a quite upset over the fact that if found guilty at trial, he faced certain death. Singapore, possibly the strictest of all countries concerning law and punishment worldwide, is also one of the few countries that will enforce the death penalty for drug-related offenses. Under Singapore’s Misuse of Drugs Act, an individual faces a mandatory death sentence for smuggling 15 grams of heroin, 30 grams of cocaine, 500 grams of marijuana, 200 grams of hashish, and can face the death penalty for so much as trying to manufacture drugs. Kidnapping, arms trafficking, and illegally carrying a gun also carry a mandatory death sentence. Similarly, Australian “Ganja Queen” Schapelle Corby initially faced the death penalty under Indonesian law when she was arrested for allegedly trying to smuggle 4.2 kg of cannabis across Indonesian borders.

These examples prove you don’t need to take a life to legally forfeit your own in every corner of the world, and while a smuggler’s home country can attempt to save their citizen, ultimately the country they committed the crime in has the final say. While the death penalty wasn’t enforced on Schapelle Corby, who many believe to be innocent, she will not see release from prison until 2024. Unfortunately for Nguyen Tuong Van, the courts of Singapore very much meant business: he was executed by hanging in 2005.

4. Ignores Possibility of Redemption

Retribution vs. Redemption. Possibly the most controversial death penalty case within the past several years, Stanley “Tookie” Williams, who was sentenced to death for four murders in 1979, petitioned for clemency prior to his date of execution in 2005. While Stanley Williams was initially hostile during his imprisonment, he began to redeem himself through acting as an anti-gang activist, writing children’s books that taught anti-gang morals, and apologizing for the co-founding of the Crips. If genuine atonement and redemption is possibly for a horrible crime, Stanley Williams may have stood as an example of it. Williams was even awarded the Nobel Peace Prize to this effect.

When Williams’ clemency was denied and his execution was carried out in December 2005, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger said about this about the denial of clemency: “Without an apology and atonement for these senseless and brutal killings there can be no redemption. In this case, the one thing that would be the clearest indication of complete remorse and full redemption is the one thing Williams will not do.”

Is setting terms for genuine redemption really the fair thing to do, especially when you don’t genuinely know a person? Redemption is still possible even if a criminal doesn’t fit into an individual’s view of redemption. One criminal might attempt to redeem themselves by donating money to the family of his victims, another might simply confess to the crime. If there is even a chance a person seeks to atone for their actions, they become capable of doing good things, which makes them more valuable to the human race alive than dead.

3. Racial Bias

If 2009 stats are any indication, the chances of a criminal going to death row are higher than that of any other race. African-Americans currently comprise 45% of the death row population, while Caucasians comprise 41%. Death-penalty.info discovered that Sister Helen Prejean, one of America’s leading anti-death penalty proponents, conducted a study that revealed race plays a major role in the likelihood of a criminal receiving the death penalty for a capital crime. Although racial bias in the legal system is an entirely different, lengthier, and heated debate, true fairness in the legal system is impossible if a defendant is being judged by skin color. Entrusting a defendant’s life to a system that has an admitted bias, in itself, could be considered morally irresponsible.

2. Life in Prison as an Alternative

Tying a rope around a criminal’s neck, dropping them through a trap door so that they “hang by the neck until dead” and leaving them to rot within horrendous prison living standards until dead may vary greatly in the time it takes to die, but the outcome is still the same.

According to studious people of deathpenaltyinfo.org, the cost to house a death row inmate is $63,000,000…just for one year. By comparison, housing a life-imprisonment inmate is only $11,300,000 annually. If the outcome ultimately does not change, the criminal is out of society either way, justice is done, and taxpayer dollars can even be saved, why is the death penalty necessary?

Of course, there’s the argument that keeping someone on death row for 3-5 years is cheaper in the long run than leaving a criminal in prison for the next 25-50 years, think again. Lavell Frierson, who murdered Edgargo Kramer, stayed on death row for 27 years, in which his repeated appeals cost the state of San Francisco countless dollars. After 27 years, Frierson’s conviction was overturned for the third time in 2006, which renders all financial expenses to kill him a waste. Lavell isn’t even the longest to wait on death row, as Jack Alderman served on Death Row for 33 years before his execution in 2006.

Financially, this is the best option, though there may be one better morally…

1. “An Eye For An Eye Leaves the Whole World Blind”

The pieces of human filth that end the lives of others because of criminal need or even pleasure are truly monsters, but still, ending their lives will not bring back their victims back to life. The death of a murderer cannot bring peace to the victim, the death of a murderer cannot reverse the crime, and the death of a single murderer will never ensure that the act of murder never takes place again.

Let’s face it, the life of people who do these terrible things is of little value to the average person, but a life is still a life, regardless of that person’s crimes, and all lives are of some value. Do we advocate execution of the terminally ill because their lives are “already over”, or execute the mentally retarded because they may be unable to contribute to society on the same level of the average person? The law supposedly exists because the human eye shouldn’t be capable of judging or punishing a person, but the eyes of the law, through the judge and the jury, are still human.

Hypothetically, 12 people in a jury box deciding if a person should die for the crime of murder is no different than any 12 people who decide upon the value of a person’s life, based on the standards of their society. A jury that elects death for a serial arsonist and a group of Muslims that stone a woman for adultery are acting in the same capacity; they are obeying the law and serving the law by enforcing it. However, if human beings are imperfect, who are we to say what crimes give us the right to kill another? By giving ourselves the right to end another’s life, through the law or even through vigilantism, we share a common ground with the monsters who commit these crimes in the first place, and that ground should be far, far beneath the footing of any law-abiding human being.

Defining the borders between countries has been a problem since the dawn of time. With inaccurate maps, leaders used to rely on geographical features, such as mountain ranges and rivers, to draw such boundaries but in the absence of these it could be difficult to tell what land belongs to whom. Even now, with accurate mapping, the same questions arise. In fact, accurate maps often only serve to make nations more particular when it comes to land disputes.

10. Basque Region

The Basque is a historical region in Northeast Spain and Southwest France. The area formed a Roman, and medieval kingdom until the early tenth century when it was divided into the French province of Gascony and the Kingdom of Pamplona, later the Kingdom of Navarre. The Spanish Basque region was later annexed by the neighboring Kingdom of Castile, which later became the central region of the Kingdom of Spain. It has enjoyed varying degrees of autonomy since then, owing to its rich industry and diverse culture.

The Basque Region in Northern Spain has been pushing for independence for the last several decades. The region operates as an autonomous region of Spain and is afforded more autonomy than any other non-independent region in Europe. The Basque Nationalist Party has also been campaigning for the independence of the Basque peoples in France. The terrorist organization ETA is the militant wing of the Basque nationalists. ETA uses the tactic of guerrilla warfare and assassination to achieve its goals. To date it has killed over 800 people and carried out countless kidnappings.

The Basque peoples have their own language and unique culture. They are one of the few truly native European peoples and can trace their ancestry in the region over two thousand years.

9. Texas

In the early years of American colonization, Texas was claimed by the Spanish Empire but the French mistakenly established a colony there. The French colony was short lived but the French used this as justification for it claiming the region as part of its Louisiana territory. This prompted Spain to quickly begin colonization of the area. They established several small villages and missions, and began converting the native population. Later, after gaining independence from Spain, Mexico allowed immigration to Texas from the U.S. This proved to be their downfall as by 1834, there were 30,000 Americans living in Texas, compared to only 7,800 Mexicans.

In 1835, through 1836, the Texas Revolution saw Texas becoming an independent republic. Although this was never recognized by the Mexican government who were determined to recapture the region and continued to mount attacks against the Republic. In 1845, the Republic of Texas was officially annexed by the United States to prevent it from being retaken by Mexico. This sparked the Mexican-American war, in which Mexico invaded Texas once more but ultimately lost significant territory.

8. Tibet

Tibet has a history of being picked on. As a center for the Buddhist religion it has a major political significance. However, this also makes it a peaceful nation, open to abuse by other, less enlightened powers.

First it was the Mongols and then Nepal and China. Then, in 1904, the British led an invasion, establishing Tibet as an independent nation under the protection of the British Empire (with strict trade restriction favorable to Britain). Each time, the Dalia Lama fled his country in true pacifist style. When the Chinese invaded once again, in 1910, the Dalai Lama fled to British India. He returned in 1912 (following the fall of the Quing dynasty in China) to establish a new government, proclaiming that Tibet was independent but had a long-standing friendship with China, described as being that of ‘patron and priest’. This situation remained throughout the modern period until the end of the second world war, when the newly formed People’s Republic of China mounted a full-scale invasion.

Following the invasion of Tibet by the Peoples Republic of China in 1950, the world went Tibet crazy. For the next several decades hippies across the world sported t-shirts, banners and badges insisting that the Chinese ‘Free Tibet’. In 1956 a rebellion against the Chinese authorities (supported by the CIA) was unsuccessful.

7. Northern Ireland

England spent most of the middle ages trying to capture and dominate Ireland. For the most part they were successful, particularly in Northern Ireland where the Catholic Irish were successfully converted to Protestantism and made loyal to the British Crown.

When Ireland gained independence as the Irish Free State, the government of Northern Ireland made the decision to remain part of Great Britain. However, Irish nationalists saw this as a betrayal and believed that the entire of Ireland should be united as one republic.

The main issue of the separation of Northern Ireland from the Republic of Ireland has been the question of where to draw the borders, particularly in areas where both Catholics and Protestants live together. This has led to decades of violence between the two groups, both in the form of terrorist organizations and in civil unrest within local communities. To keep the peace, Britain has maintained a strong military presence in Northern Ireland. Unfortunately these soldiers have often been targeted by terrorist organizations too.

Since 1998, the problems of Northern Ireland seem to have been largely resolved with the signing of the Good Friday Agreement. This historic agreement established ‘power sharing’ in the disputed areas.

6. The Falkland Islands

The Falkland Islands is a small a archipelago off the southeast coast of Chile. Although seemingly insignificant, they have been claimed by no less than four nations in their short history (Britain, France, Spain and Argentina) and have been fought over several times.

The Falklands were first discovered by the Dutch but the first colony was established by the French in 1764. Unaware of the French colony, the British also claimed the islands in 1765 and established a colony a year later. In 1766, the French claim to the islands was acquired by Spain and in 1767 the islands were placed under the command of a Governor of the Buenos Aires Colonial Commission. The Spanish attacked the British colony at Port Egmont, forcing the British to leave and bringing the two empires to the brink of war. However, a peace treaty allowed them to return only a year later. Only a decade later the British and Spanish both abandoned the Islands, each leaving behind plaques asserting their claims. The newly formed nation of Argentina was then free to establish a penal colony on the Islands, although this was attacked by the U.S during a conflict over fishing rights in the area.

In 1833 the British were back. They established a naval base at Stanley and reasserted their claim to the islands. The islands remained under British control into the modern era when, in 1982, Argentina invaded but was ultimately driven back during the Falklands War. The Falkland Islands remain under British control.

5. Kashmir

Kashmir is a disputed region that sits between the nations of Pakistan, India and China. It was once ruled by the Muslim Mughals and by the Afghan Durrains. Between 1846 and 1947 Kashmir was a state ruled by a Maharajah and administered by the British Empire as part of British India. The state was established following the British victory in the first Anglo-Sikh war. Following the British pullout from India and the subsequent division of British India into the twin nations of India and Pakistan, Kashmir became a disputed region.

Following the British pullout from the region. A rebellion against the Maharajah took place. During this conflict, an agreement was reached between the Maharajah and India in which he agreed to cede the region to India. However, troops from Pakistan then invaded Kashmir, stopping the agreed handover to India. Indian President Nehru brought the situation to the attention of the UN who were able to arrange a cease but have been unable to come to a permanent arrangement over sovereignty of the region.

Kashmir is now jointly administered by India, Pakistan and China. As all three of these nations are armed with nuclear weapons, a stalemate has been reached and the Kashmir debate continues to this day. India and Pakistan have come close to nuclear conflict over the issue several times.

4. Silesia

This region in central Europe between Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia (currently resting almost entirely within Poland) has been disputed for centuries. Because of its central location, Silesia has been the focus of many conflicts, particularly between Prussia and Austria.

Silesia has been home to many different ethnic groups and, in its early history, was part of the kingdoms of Bohemia and Moravia. Later it was occupied by Poland and divided into a series of independent duchies. A growing German influence saw Silesia become part of Prussia and then the German Empire. In the eighteenth and nineteenth century, a series of wars were fought over Silesia between Prussia and Austria. After World War I, and following a number of Silesian uprisings, the region was granted to Poland, with portions remaining in Germany and a small area to the South becoming part of the new Czechoslovakian state. After World War II the region became part of the Soviet Union and the borders changed yet again in favor of Poland. The German population was forced out and replaced with Polish settlers.

3. Saarland

The Saarland is a small, coal rich area on the border between France and Germany. Historically the territory has been largely under German control, and colonized by both France and Germany. In 1792, the forces of Napoleon captured the area and made it part of the French Republic. After the defeat of Napoleon the area was returned to Germany, however Napoleon III ordered a second invasion, sparking the Franco-Prussian war in which Germany would prevail.

In the period between the two World Wars, the Saarland was placed under the joint administration of France and Britain by the League of Nations. In the build-up to World War II it became a safe haven for those fleeing Nazi Germany. However, as anti-French sentiment increased so did loyalties to Germany. In a referendum in 1933 the population of the Saarland voted overwhelmingly for the ceding of the area back into German hands.

The end of World War II saw the Saarland under French control once again. The French campaigned for the right to annex the region as reparation for the damage caused in the two wars. The Germans also proposed the establishment of the Saarland as an independent state. However, it was ceded to the German Federal Republic in 1957.

2. Abkhazia

Abkhazia (formerly the Kingdom of Abkhazia) is an autonomous region in North-West Georgia, on the Eastern coast of the Black Sea, Bordering Georgia and Russia. Historically, Abkhazia has had periods of independence, intermixed with periods of union with Georgia. The entire region was once part of the Russian Empire, becoming part of the U.S.S.R. The Russian Empire fought the Ottoman Empire for control of the region.

During the Soviet period. Abkhazia enjoyed independence, as a Soviet Republic and member of the Soviet Union. Neighboring Georgia and Dagestan were also independent Soviet Republics. However, since the collapse of the Union, Georgia has claimed Abkhazia as it’s own. During the 1990s, separatists in Abkhazia fought a war of independence against Georgia and also carried out a genocide of 15,000 ethnic Georgians. The rebels were supported by other terrorist agencies and, unofficially, the Russian government. Abkhazia has since considered itself to be independent and has held it’s own elections under its self imposed titles of the Republic of Abkhazia. However, Georgia, and many other countries have refused to accept the country’s independence.

In August, 2008, Georgia launched an offensive against rebel forces in South Ossetia, another breakaway region that had declared independence at roughly the same time as Abkhazia. In response, Russia declared war on Georgia and committed it’s forces to supporting its allies in South Ossetia and Abkhazia simultaneously. In the 2008 war, Russia successfully captured significant territory on the behalf of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, and was successful in driving Georgian forces out of Abkhazia. However, Russia remains the only country to officially recognize it as an independent republic.

1. Jerusalem

The city of Jerusalem is the most hotly disputed territory on Earth, being the religious center of three major religions; Judaism, Christianity and Islam. These three religions have been in competition for control of the city for nearly two thousand years and each has occupied it more than once.

The city was part of the kingdom of Judea, in Biblical times, which was later captured by the Roman Empire. At first it was the Jews who fought the Romans but later it was the Persians who succeeded in capturing the holy city after a twenty-one-day siege. The Persian army then slaughtered up to 90,000 Christians and Jerusalem was subject to several hundred years of Arab rule. Feudal wars between the Arab kingdoms resulted in their decline from the area, allowing Christian forces to occupy Jerusalem for the first time since the Romans.

The eleventh century saw the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, ruled by members of the powerful Angevin dynasty of France. Several of the famous Holy Crusades sought to defend the Holy City and to recapture former Christian territory but ultimately failed. Jerusalem descended into anarchy with the arrival of the Black Death and repeated invasions by the Persians, Egyptians, Mongols and eventually the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire gave a great deal of stability to Jerusalem, allowing pilgrims from all faiths and nationalities to flock to the city, creating a truly multicultural society. The population of the city exploded.

The end of the First World War saw the city and the region placed in British hands. In this period violence between Jews and Muslims was high as the growing Jewish population fought to gain dominance and to establish an independent Jewish state.

In the wake of the Second World War and the British pull-out of the region, Israel declared independence. Jordan quickly moved in to occupy East Jerusalem whilst Israel occupied the West side of the city. An armistice was reached but when Jordan began restricting access to the holy sites on their side of the divide Israel responded by declaring war. In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel occupied East Jerusalem. Muslim retaliation has continued ever since, with many terrorist and political groups aiming to recapture Jerusalem and install it as the capital of a new Palestinian state.

The Jerusalem question has been the most heated political debate of modern times. A system of power sharing similar to that in Northern Ireland has been suggested but with the cycle of violence continuing, any permanent agreement between Jews and Muslims seems unlikely. Meanwhile, the Christian influence in the city remains strong, with the Greek Orthodox Church owning more property in Jerusalem than any other organization.

Of course sometimes war is a necessity and can be a very effective political tool. The Second World War, for example, was entirely justified (at least from the allied perspective) and was successful in stopping what would have been decades, if not centuries, of Nazi oppression. It also resulted in great political and scientific advances like the U.N and the atomic bomb. Throughout history, however, wars have been fought over the silliest things and have resulted in nothing but pain and misery. Here are our top 10 most pointless wars. Feel free to disagree and get all het-up over your sense of national pride.

10. The Falklands War

The Falkland Islands is a small archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, approximately three hundred miles off the southern coast of Argentina. They have a population of around three thousand British citizens, mostly of British descent, and about the same amount of sheep and deer. The Falkland Islands are an oversees territory of the United Kingdom and serve as a naval base of the Royal Navy. Essentially the islands are baron and considered to be a small, insignificant, and mostly forgotten corner of the British Empire.

And yet in 1982 Great Britain went to war over the Falkland Islands, following an invasion by Argentinean forces. There are many people in the U.K today that consider the Falklands War to have been a rather pointless conflict. These are mostly those that lost loved ones in the conflict. Amongst others, the consensus is that the Falklands War was a worthwhile undertaking on the matter of principal. This principal being that every corner of the British Isles, no matter how remote, is worthy of the full defense of the British Crown. It was on this standpoint that the war was fought. It sent a message to the rest of the world that Great Britain was not a force to be toyed with and that, although severely reduced in size, the British Empire is an ever present force in world politics.

Of course, from the Argentinean point of view, the Falklands was thoroughly pointless and a total disaster. Argentina went to war with one of the most heavily armed and technologically advanced naval forces in the world over a few pointless, wind-battered islands. And they lost! How embarrassing.

The Falklands war lasted just over two months, although war was never declared. Argentina was sent packing by British forces after a closely fought naval and air battle, and a grueling land campaign.

9. The Cod Wars

The Cod Wars, so called by the British media, were a series of heated conflicts between Great Britain and Iceland over fishing rights in the North Atlantic between the 1950s and 1970s. The argument became so heated that it would surely have resulted in open warfare were not for the fact that both countries are NATO members.

To say that open warfare did not break out during the Cod Wars is a matter of contention. Although no official state of war ever existed between the two governments, a state of war certainly existed between British fishermen and the Icelandic coast guard. When Icelandic vessels began cutting the nets of British trawlers both sides armed themselves. There were several incidents in which ships rammed each other, and when the Royal Navy was called in to protect British trawlers they took the extreme measure of actually firing upon the Icelandic coast guard on several occasions.

8. The War of Jenkins’ Ear

The war of Jenkins’ ear was essentially a trade war between Great Britain and Spain, fought exclusively in their American colonies between 1739 and 1742. The war began as a naval conflict over the rights of British traders in Spanish waters, largely played out by privateers. It later featured some major land battles as the British parliament became more determined to see any tangible results of their campaigns. After four years of war the map of the Americas had not been altered I any way and Britain had not succeeded in pressing their naval advantages against the Spanish Empire. This colonial war then spilled over into the larger War of the Austrian Succession, fought in Europe. Between 1739 and 1742 the British had not launched a major offensive against the Spanish in Europe for fear that the French would enter the war in their defense. But when the War of the Austrian Succession began, France declared war on Britain anyway, leaving the British feeling that they should have attacked Spain when the odds were in their favor.

The war began when a number of British trade vessels were boarded and confiscated at Spanish ports, despite a treaty which gave them rights to trade goods and slaves in Spanish America. One of the captains of these ships, Robert Jenkins, had his ear cut off by a Spanish captain. When giving evidence of the Spanish raids in parliament, Jenkins produced his severed ear to the English politicians, causing outrage and sparking the war.

The major British campaigns took place in south and central America. A full scale invasion of New Granada (present day Columbia) ended in disaster with the British troops succumbing to a deadly tropical disease. Other attacks were in the Caribbean islands and the Venezuelan coast, none of which were particularly successful. An attack on the Spanish port of Porto Bello, on the coast of Panama, was the only success. Porto Bello was a major source of silver. The British attacked and captured the town, holding it for a mere three weeks. In that time, however, they had destroyed the towns fortifications and warehouses. When the victorious fleet returned home, ‘Rule Britannia’ was performed for the first time in public.

The Spanish also had little success in this world war that never was. An attack on the British colony of Georgia from Spanish Florida was repelled, meaning that neither side achieved any territorial gains.

7. The Texas Archive War

The series of events known as ‘the Texas Archive War’ was a conflict between the army of the Republic of Texas, under the orders of President Sam Houston, and the civilian population of Austin, Texas.

Sam Houston had always been proud that the capita city of his fledgling nation had been named after him. So when the Texan Congress announced plans to create a new capital, he was less than happy. The new capital would be purpose built and named for Stephen F. Austin. The small town of Waterloo was chosen as the site for the new city and renamed Austin. In 1839 it became the capital of Texas and the new home of the national Archives.

Two years later, Sam Houston became president again and made his dislike of the capital city known. He refused to stay in the official presidential residence, and instead stayed in the guest house of one Mrs Angelina Eberly. Mrs Eberly would become the hero of the Texas Archive War.

When Mexico began an invasion of Southern Texas, President Houston saw the opportunity to have his namesake town become the capital once again. He declared that Austin was no longer safe and could not be well defended against the Mexicans. The Texan Congress was moved to Washington-on-the-Brazos and many of the citizens of Austin were evacuated. Those that stayed, including Angelina Eberly, knew exactly what was going on. When Houston sent an armed party to safely remove the national archives from Austin they rose up in defiance. Angelina Eberly caught the President’s men in the act and fired a cannon into the side of the archive building. The rest of the townsfolk, now alerted by the firing of the cannon, gathered to give chase to the men and reclaim the archives. They took the cannon with them. The soldiers had been ordered by their President to take the archives without bloodshed. So when confronted by an armed mob, on the following day, they had no choice but to surrender the archives.

In 1843 Sam Houston was removed from office and in 1845 the capital was once again moved to Austin.

6. The Football War

Also known as the ‘soccer war’ or ‘100 hours war’, this conflict took place during 1969 between El Salvador and Honduras. Political tensions between the two countries were high, owing to disputes over several matters including immigration policies. What had been a political argument then broke out into open warfare after a football match between the two countries ended with rioting. Salvador launched an attack on its neighbor, seizing land that had been the subject of a long raging border dispute, but later retreated. The two countries signed a peace treaty in 1980 and the International Court of Justice ended the border dispute by awarding the land in question to Honduras, the original occupiers. The final score: Nil-nil, a disappointing result all-round.

5. William’s War

William of Orange, Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and newly crowned King of England conducted this war against the French in North America in 1689-97. As always, the French and English used their Native American allies to conduct most of the fighting, most notably the Iroquois Five Nations, who suffered huge losses at the hands of the French and remained at war with them until 1701 as a result.

Besides mass bloodshed amongst the Native allies of both empires, the British and French achieved very little in this war. The English forces managed to attack the French before word of the war had even reached them. As a result they were able to capture the French province of Acadia (present day Nova Scotia) and the following attack on the province of New France and Quebec did not go so well. When a peace treaty was signed, it declared that all territorial gains were voided and the borders of North America returned to their previous positions. It had all been for nothing. French Acadia would not become the British territory of Nova Scotia until 1701, following the war instigated by William’s wife, Queen Anne’s War.

‘William’s War’ and ‘Queen Anne’s War’ are also often referred to as the ‘French and Indian Wars’.

4. Serbo-Turkish War

After gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire, ending hundreds of years of Ottoman rule, the kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro foolishly declared war on the Ottoman Empire in 1876. This was a reaction to the massacre of Bulgarian rebels by the Ottomans, which had outraged the world.

Whilst Russia and Austro-Hungary were negotiating over the future of the region, and likely pulling the strings of the two young nations, Serbia and Montenegro were fighting a losing battle. The huge Ottoman Empire (comprised of present day Turkey, Israel, Serbia, Iraq, Jordan and parts of Saudi Arabia) was simply too large for them to take on alone. A temporary cease-fire was declared but when it ended the Turks began attacking them once more. Serbia had been unsuccessful in finding new allies. Fortunately for them, Russia was eager to assert authority over the region. With the deployment of the Russian forces, the Ottoman Empire was quick to sue for peace.

The war achieved nothing. But the following year, Russia declared war against the Ottomans on their own terms and won several major victories.

3. The Pastry War

During the early years of the Mexican Republic, widespread civil unrest dogged the citizens of Mexico City. A great deal of damage was done to the homes and businesses of these citizens including those foreign nationals living in the city, for which the Mexican government made little reparation. In 1838 a French pastry chef claimed that his shop in Mexico City had been seriously damaged by looting Mexican officers. He appealed to the French king for help and the French demanded that Mexico pay 600,000 pesos. Mexico had also defaulted on several loans from the French treasury. When Mexico refused to pay, the French navy blockaded every Mexican port from the Yucatan to the Rio Grande and destroyed the bulk of the Mexican fleet at Veracruz. Mexico responded by declaring war on France but had no choice but to agree to the demands.

2. The Russian War of 1812

By 1812 Napoleon had built an empire almost the size of Europe. Those countries not already occupied by or allied to the French Empire had been pacified through treaties favorable to France. Napoleon drew his eyes on the Russian Empire, but failed to anticipate the logistics necessary in capturing such a large area. If that wasn’t a big enough blunder, he also forgot to pack his snowshoes.

After a long march, Napoleon entered Moscow to find that the Russians had abandoned it. Those that remained were starving and had begun looting food. There were no officials to offer the surrender of the city and no food to feed Napoleon’s massive army. Soon the French army began looting for themselves and somewhere in this chaos a fire was started. The fire destroyed four fifths of the city of Moscow and left Napoleon and his army with no shelter, food or plunder. With no food, and now no hope of victory, Napoleon was forced to withdraw from Russia. Of his 600,000 strong ‘Grand Army’, only about 40,000 limped back into France to quell a revolt that had taken place in his absence. The Russian campaign had been such a disaster that Napoleon found himself wondering why he had bothered in the first place. Had he really expected to conquer Russia so easily?

Tchaikovsky was so impressed with the Russian tactic of running away that he composed the 1812 overture in celebration.

1. World War I

Many people across the world consider the First World War to have been the most pointless and devastating war ever fought by any country in history. Although political tensions between the massive Russian, French and British Empires and the Empires of Germany, Austro-Hungary and the declining Ottoman Empire, made this war inevitable, it did not succeed in providing any of the protagonists with any long term gains. In fact the only results of the ‘Great War’ were the development of the tank, the fighter aircraft and political instability in the Middle East.

The war can be seen as a huge family squabble, considering that the royal families of most of the warring nations were headed by the grand children of Queen Victoria of Great Britain. Whilst Great Britain and France had a long history of competition, this war saw them fighting together for the first time. Britain was also allied with the Russians, despite being at war with them only a few years before. The actual event blamed for the start of the war is the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austro-Hungary, by a Bosnian terrorist. As a result, Austro-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This caused Russia to declare war on Austro-Hungary in response and began a political domino effect.

World War I is so called because it eventually included almost every nation on the face of the Earth. Collectively the Empires of France, Britain, Italy, the Ottoman Empire and Germany controlled much of the world, but even those nations that were not under the control of a European empire became involved. Italy joined the war on the side of the Allies, whilst in the Balkans, Bulgaria fought against the Allied Kingdom of Serbia. Armenia and Greece helped in the fight against the Ottomans, Australia and New Zealand attacked German Samoa and German New Guinea, and even Japan joined in, invading Germany’s Micronesian colonies. Those that did not engage in fighting declared war just to feel a part of the latest trend.

Trench warfare and the use of machine guns and nerve gas helped to make the ‘Great War’ one of the bloodiest in history. Over fifteen million people were killed worldwide.

The medieval map of Europe was very different to the one we see today. Small, insignificant nations dotted most of the continent and changed hands regularly. All the major players were there, often taking different guises to they ones they posses in the modern era, but it would take several centuries for them to consolidate their power into the colonial nations that would later dominate the world. In the meantime other, now extinct kingdoms ruled in their place, hoping to be one of the few to make it through the great power struggles of the age.

These are the most badass of the Medieval kingdoms. Some went on to be the most powerful nations on Earth. Others came close, but did not quite make the grade.

10. Norman England

Normandy is a duchy in the North of present day France. In medieval times it was a powerful territory and the dukes of Normandy spread their influence across Europe. Normandy was such a powerful duchy that it captured a kingdom over twice its size.

The most famous Norman Duke was William the conqueror. William was great builder of castles and cathedrals, which greatly impressed the pope and others in the Christian world. At the battle of Hastings, in 1066, he won the crown of England and with it the title he’d always wanted – King!

Despite it’s pride, and centuries of historical bias, the kingdom of England was actually ruled from France for several hundred years. The Normans were great builders and provided England with a legacy of castles, cathedrals and monasteries. William also initiated the great census known as the doomsday book; a vast catalog of every man, woman, child and pig in his new kingdom.

9. Aragon

This relatively small kingdom in Northern Spain grew to enormous influence before it’s annexation into Spain. At the height of its power, Argon ruled a small-medium sized empire including neighboring Catalonia and Valencia, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Naples (Southern Italy), Sicily and, at the farthest reach of this Mediterranean empire, Athens.

This wide spread empire made it difficult for the Aragonese kings to uphold their power. They were often accused of neglecting their home kingdoms in Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia. One king shared between so many kingdoms was pushing it and so in the thirteenth century the Pope called a crusade against Aragon. The noblemen rose up against their shared king and forced him to sign the ‘Union of Aragon’, which gave them powers over him similar to the act of Magnicarta, signed in England.

Aragon ceased to exist as a kingdom after its invasion by the Spanish Kingdom of Castile. Aragon was subsequently merged with Castile to create the new Kingdom of Spain in 1516.

8. Angevin England

The house of Anjou was an extremely powerful medieval family based in the Earldom of Anjou, in Northwest France. Collectively it controlled countries from Poland to Jerusalem. When the Angevins successfully took control of the Duchy of Normandy it won the crown of England too, and added it to an Empire that stretched from Ireland, through France, to the Pyrenees.

The branch of the Angevin dynasty that came to rule England were called the Plantagenets. The Plantagenets ruled England, Ireland, and Wales, plus the territories of Anjou, Aquitaine, Maine, Normandy, Brittany, Gascony and Cyprus.

The most famous of the Plantagenet kings were brothers John and Richard. Otherwise know as the ‘Coeur De Lion’, or the Lion Heart, Richard is remembered as a great and brave Christian warrior for his role in the Crusades. Recent historians, however, are painting a new picture of England’s most heroic king, who initiated a holocaust of London’s Jews and killed his own father. Despite being it’s king, Richard only visited England once and spoke French rather than English. He died after being shot by an arrow whilst besieging a rebel stronghold in his French territories. He famously called for the archer and forgave him, but the archer was flayed and hanged to death as soon as Richard passed away.

John is not remembered so fondly as his brother. He lost the territory of Normandy to the Kingdom of France (with the exception of the channel islands which remain British today). Later, he lost the crown jewels of England in a bog. Silly John!

7. Hungary

Hungary is the oldest of all the medieval kingdoms. It existed long before France or England became unified and before its counterpart, Austria, had even been born. Hungary sat exactly where it does today but with borders expanding much further, into Transylvania and the present day countries of Croatia, Serbia and Slovakia. Hungary was successful in repelling invasions by the Mongols and the Ottomans, Europe’s greatest enemies.

Hungary was also one of the richest Kingdoms in Medieval Europe, owing its wealth of gold mines.

During the fourteenth century, Hungary was ruled by Angevin kings and briefly occupied the Kingdom of Naples. It was later inherited by the powerful Habsburg family and became part of the Austrian Empire.

6. The Kingdom of France

France had long been the home of powerful families and the territories of France were some of the most successful in Europe. However, in the early medieval this power had more to do with the strengths of the component territories of France than with the French crown itself. The duchies and lands that made up France were largely autonomous and, although they officially paid homage to the king of France, sought expansion of their own power rather than that of their monarch. The duchy of Normandy, and later Anjou, had become so powerful that they had earned the right to be considered equal to their king by becoming themselves the kings of England. This was a problematic situation for the French kings as they knew that it would not be long before the French rulers of England, Jerusalem and other countries came to surpass them. This would either end with the complete disillusion of France, which was now little more than a shaky alliance outside of its central Parisian territory, or the assumption of the French crown by one of its subjects.

Something had to be done about the powerful Angevins and their brothers the Plantagents who now ruled England and most of France. The French kings were of Angevin stock themselves, but were from the Capetian side of the family.

The situation was to turn around in the twelfth century with the reign of king Louis VI (Louis the fat), his son Louis VII and the royal advisor to them both, Abbot Sugar. Louis VI was more warlike than his predecessors and commanded much more respect. Under the advice of abbot sugar he was able to claw back dominance over his defiant Dukes and Barrons. Regular court sessions were called and those that did not turn up had their lands seized by the crown. A marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine saw Louis VII gain the title of Duke of Aquitaine. However, the marriage was dissolved and Elanor later married Richard Plantaganet, who became Henry II of England, Lord of Ireland, Count of Anjou, Duke of Gascony and Duke of Aquitaine. Their children would be a powerful group and included the Plantagenet kings Richard and John.

King Phillip Augustus of France allied himself with Richard (the lion heart) against Richard’s father but then found an equal enemy in Richard when he became King of England himself. It was only when Richard was succeeded by his brother John that the French were finally able to gain control of Normandy and Anjou, becoming lords in their own land at last.

Later, France would become an absolute monarchy and asserted the king’s divine right to rule. A long commitment to the crusades had earned the French kings brownie points with the Pope and France went from strength to strength, eventually becoming one of the world’s most powerful nations.

5. Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus was not technically a kingdom but a principality, probably the largest principality in history. It occupied a vast area of Eurasia, from Scandinavia to the Ukraine. The population was an eclectic mix of Slavs, Finns and the many ethnic groups that still make up Western Russia today. In an unlikely twist, however, the ruling class were of Viking descent. Legend tells that the local peoples were so impressed by the Vikings that they invited them to come into their land and rule over them as princes. Although it remains likely that this is a Viking account written after all the usual the pillaging was over.

Centers of power in Kievan Rus were the cities of Kiev and Novgorod, which established itself as an Oligarchal Republic. These became centers of learning and culture in what was previously an untamed land.

In the Early medieval period, Kievan Rus was a rich nation, built upon the trade of furs and honey. It controlled trade routes in Eastern Europe and the Black Sea and became so powerful that it even made war on the powerful Byzantine Empire, attacking Constantinople its self in a somewhat stereotypical Viking raid. A peace treaty was later signed on equal grounds. The Rus were duly Christianized and the Grand Prince was given his official title and crown.

Asking a bunch of Vikings to share a vast and rich land such as Russia is clearly a bad idea, however, and the Rus did not last more than a few centuries before descending into anarchy. A total of eighty-three civil wars saw the kingdom split into over sixty separate principalities. The arrival of the Mongols destroyed many of these fledgling states, but those that survived did enjoy relative prosperity, forming alliances that would ultimately benefit from the stability and trade that the Mongols brought. These alliances were the Ukrainians to the South, the Belorussians, and the Russians to the North, all of which have survived as modern nations in the present day.

4. Spain

Spain has its beginnings as a number of small kingdoms in the North of present day Spain. These kingdoms were established by Christian Visigoths and in the medieval period were known as Leon, Castile, Navarre and Aragon. Several smaller Spanish kingdoms, such as Valencia and Barcelona were annexed into the Aragon Empire during the second and third centuries BC. Portugal emerged around this time as an offshoot of the kingdom of Leon.

Movement towards a united Spain as we know it began in the thirteenth century when the twin kingdoms of Castile (central) and Leon (North West) became united. The newly expanded Kingdom of Castile then expanded southwards into the Muslim territories of Andalusia. The kingdom of Spain was not formed until 1516, when Castile annexed the Kingdom of Aragon, inheriting its other Spanish position and its overseas acquisitions in the Mediterranean.

When the Kingdom of Spain arrived on the global scene it already controlled a small empire. From Aragon it had gained the vassal kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, and also controlled a portion of the Netherlands, in present day Belgium. By this point, the joint kingdoms of Leon and Castile had added Granada (South) to their Spanish territories, conquered the Canary Islands and begun the colonization of Hispania and Cuba. In the following centuries, as the rest of Europe was fighting amongst themselves, Spain lost it’s Italian positions but conquered build a huge empire in Mexico and central America, Florida, California, the Philippines, and divided South America between itself and its Portuguese neighbors.

Medieval Spain was a place of incredible religious intolerance. The inquisition sought out those with undesirable religious and political beliefs, Gypsies were persecuted and Jews were either forced out of the country or massacred.

3. Austria

Austria was home to the powerful Habsburg dynasty, one of the most successful families in history. The story of the Habsburgs, and the story of Austria, is one of success after success. As royal families go they were right at the top of the tree from their beginnings in medieval Germany to the present day.

Austria began its life as an early medieval duchy. It was inherited by the Habsburgs in 1278 and instantly began to grow, enveloping Carinthia and Hungary. Through war and marriage, the Austrians gained much territory and eventually became one of the largest empires in Europe. At one time, the Austrian Empire stretched from Bohemia and Galacia in the North to Dalmatia and much of the Balkans in the South, and from the Austrian Alps to Transylvania and the Carpathian Mountains in the East. Through marriage, the Austrian Habsburgs also controlled many of the low countries (Holland).

When the Habsburgs inherited the crown of Spain they won the biggest jackpot of the times. Not only did they now control Spain and its territories in Belgium, but also it’s overseas colonies in the Americas.

2. The Ottoman Empire

As a Turkish Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire evolved alongside the remnants of the Byzantine Empire based in Constantinople (present day Istanbul). Later, the Ottoman Empire surrounded and eventually enveloped Constantinople, taking all of its former territories. During the medieval period the Ottomans spread across Turkey and Greece, and into Europe via the Kingdom of Thrace and the Balkans. As a powerful Muslim nation, the Ottoman Empire caused panic and alarm in the Christian world, who mounted several crusades against them, particularly to protect the city of Jerusalem. But the combined forces of Christian Europe failed to stop the Ottomans, who continued to spread across North Africa, into the Middle-East and deeper into East Europe.

The Ottomans were able to capitalize on the power vacuum caused by their defeat of Byzantium and formed alliances with several small European nations in need of protection. These nations, such as Wallachia, Moldavia, and Ragusa, were later annexed into the empire. The Ottomans also found allies in several smaller Muslim kingdoms, allowing their rapid spread across the Muslim world.

At its height the Ottoman Empire stretched across North Africa, from Algeria to Egypt, along the shores of the Red Sea, through the holy lands and Mesopotamia, Turkey, the Caucuses, the Crimean peninsular and into Greece and the Balkans, as far North as Hungary.

The Ottoman Empire existed, in a smaller form, until the 1920s when it became the Republic of Turkey.

1. Russia

Russia was the most powerful successor to Kievan Rus. It began as the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Far out away from the power centers of Europe, Moscow had to fend for its self. It set about defeating the Mongols and destroying their Khananates across Eurasia. Once the Mongol threat had been removed, Moscow found it’s self in the perfect position to begin establishing an empire. It annexed Novgorod and other Rus principalities.

The most famous of the medieval Russian leaders was Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible). In 1547 he was crowned the first Tzar of Russia. He destroyed the Mongol kingdoms along the Volga River and transformed Russia into a modern state with a code of laws and several centers of religion and learning. However, as the name suggests, Ivan the Terrible wasn’t all sunshine and kittens. An unsuccessful war in Lithuania, an attack on Moscow by the Crimean Tatars, a terrible famine and Ivan’s legendary cruelty helped to make this reign one of the many dark periods of Russian history. He ordered the entire population of Novgorod (once one of his richest cities) to be slaughtered before burning the city to the ground. Ivan is also remembered for his elaborate torture techniques. He is said t have kept bears in order to maul prisoners to death. A common torture technique was to have subjects bathed in freezing water and then burned. Ivan believed that if this were done in a repetitive cycle it would be akin to the tortures of hell. This was in keeping with his tyrannical piety. Ivan is said to have beaten one of his wives for wearing immodest clothing, causing her to miscarry.

Ivan was succeeded to the throne by his mentally ill son, Feodor. Known as Feodor the Bell Ringer, this Tzar loved to travel the kingdom ringing the bells of churches. It is now believed that Feodor may have poisoned Ivan, after the kooky Tzar tried to rape Feodor’s wife. After the death of Feodor, the line ended and the slightly less insane Romonovs came to power.

After several unsuccessful wars of expansion in Poland and the Baltic states, Russia turned its attention Eastwards. By the mid seventeenth century Russia had colonies in Siberia and along the Pacific coast. Shortly after that, Peter the Great won lands in the North West and established St Petersburg, enacting his plans to turn Russia into a great and enlightened Christian empire.

There’s a million ways to go and all of them are permanent, but like your own internal assassin, some ailments may only make themselves apparent when it’s too late to do anything about them while others can kill you before you even know you have them.

This list of the top 10 Medical Silent Killers hopes to not only alert you to some of the Grim Reaper’s sneakiest tricks, but also how you can prevent and treat them, sometimes without spending a dime to do so.

10. Mesothelioma

Mesothelioma is a type of lung cancer that is different from the common form of lung cancer; it usually involves prolonged exposure to asbestos. The warning signs of Mesothelioma are far from readily apparent; it may take up to 50 years for an individual to become symptomatic. While the American Occupational Safety and Health Association and the Environmental Protection Agency currently regulate laws for working in areas filled with asbestos, and they do so with an iron-fist, this was not always the case. Asbestos was widely used in construction from the late 1800’s until the late 1970’s, but crafting new asbestos was not banned until 1989. Given this and Mesothelioma difficulty to diagnose due to its likenesses to other respiratory illnesses, Mesothelioma is not only a hazard for people who currently work in occupations where asbestos is encountered, but Mesothelioma poses an especially grave risk for the elderly who may now be retired, but worked and lived around asbestos while it was still in common use. Though Mesothelioma is a distinctive form of cancer, it is still a cancer and may be treated through the same methods, not to mention lawsuits against those responsible for an individual’s exposure to asbestos is an often exercised option.

9. Osteoporosis

As a disease that causes weakening of the bones, Osteoporosis can bring an individual to an extremely slow and painful end if left untreated. Osteoporosis doesn’t always result in death, but when it does, it can be the result of a blood clotting following an osteoporosis-caused injury, with a spinal injury being the most severe. Severe pain in the arms, legs, or back are signs of the osteoporosis onset, however the disease will often have been developing within a person for many years. For this reason, people over 50 years old, especially women, are at a severe risk of developing osteoporosis and consist of over half of osteoporosis patients. A bone density test may be used to diagnose osteoporosis, and fortunately, it is very preventable by exercising and keeping a decent amount of Vitamin D in a diet.

8. Heart Disease

We probably all know at least one person who suffers from any given form of heart disease, of which there are many. Heart disease in all of its forms has and will continue to be a leading cause of death across the world, and while high blood pressure, weight, and lack of exercise may expedite the onset of heart disease, chances are a heart condition will kill you in old age anyway. While easily considered a silent killer, the symptoms of some forms of heart disease are unmistakable; a burning in the chest, or the numbness of a body part. Treating heart disease with pills and surgery is far from easy, but medical technology has advanced in the area of treating heart conditions possibly more than medical technology has advanced in any other endeavor. Even still, living a healthy and smoke-free lifestyle may be one of the best ways to treat, even reverse an aortic condition. Excluding age or a hereditary predisposition to heart disease, the best way to prevent it may just be to take care of oneself.

7. Aneurysms

Occurring usually in the brain or the heart, an aneurysm is the weakening of a blood vessel to the point it bursts, which will cause a hemorrhage that can result in a sudden death. Aneurysms are often caused by conditions such as diabetes and hypertension with, in fact the symptoms are similar to the pain one feels when they are about to have a heart attack. An MRI can diagnose an aneurysm, but depending on the severity of the aneurysm, surgery may be the only option to save a patient’s life.

6. Obstructive Sleep Apnea

A 22 year old female in peak physical condition is laughing, eating and joking at dinner with her family after a long day of work, goes to bed that night, and by the morning they’ve died; obstructive sleep apnea may be responsible for this tragedy. OBA is a common condition where the airway is blocked during sleep and a person may not even know they suffer from OBA as a result. OBA’s vague symptoms, which include loud snoring and post-waking headaches can make diagnosing OBA even more elusive. When someone discovers they have OBA, often from a family member, a polysomnogram is the best option for diagnosis, although the often machinery-based treatments for OBA can be expensive.

5. Obesity

Obesity is definitely a prominent silent killer that is worsened by the growing numbers for obesity and hyper-obesity growing worldwide. Today, over 200 million adults are at least 50 pounds overweight, not including children. Obesity is notoriously dangerous regardless of age as it leads to many other conditions such as diabetes, thyroid cancer, heart disease, and strokes. So, if obesity is so widespread and dangerous, why is it the only number 5 on the list of silent killers? Obesity cannot be considered as dangerous as other medical silent killers because governments, health organizations, and commercial weight-loss companies worldwide are aware of the obesity epidemic and are committed to stopping it. From the drastic gastro-intestinal bypass operation to generic diet food, the overweight have many avenues they can pursue to lose weight and stay healthy. Obesity may be a dire problem across the globe, but it is usually more than treatable if an individual is devoted to solving it.

4. Type II Diabetes

Diabetes is the epitome of a medical silent killer if only because a person has the possibility of getting it before they are even born.

www.diabetesthesilentkiller.com reports that Type I Diabetes remains uncommon, but the more dangerous Type II diabetes is similar to obesity’s status as an epidemic, as it may affect the old, healthy, and obese alike. Type II diabetes is considered somewhat impossible to detect early on because there are no outward symptoms, but as the condition grows serious Type II Diabetes can first be identified through rashes on the skin and feet. Though self-diagnosing is secondary to an evaluation by a doctor, you can determine your own risk level with an easily purchased home diabetes test. Prescription medication is currently the best treatment for Type II diabetes, but a good diet and exercise will dramatically decrease the risk of even developing Type II Diabetes.

3. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

SIDS is the sudden, unexplained death of an infant between 28 days old and a 1 year old. SIDS is an especially dangerous silent killer primarily of its unpredictability, lack of definitive causes, and the thought of a life ending before its even begun is horrifying in itself. With SIDS, generally an infant has been laid to rest for the evening and has died by the time the parent checks in on them again. It may be important to note that SIDS is not always a result of an inherent sickness within the child, but that child abuse and placing an infant on their stomach rather than their backs for bedtime may be the cause of a sudden infant death. The efforts of “The Back to Sleep” campaign, dedicated to preventing SIDS through educating and informing new parents about the risk factors of SIDS, are largely responsible for a 50 percent decline of SIDS between 2005 and 2009. Give the great people at Back to Sleep a visit at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/sids/, and then give them a round of applause.

2. Cancer

With many forms, over 1,500 Americans dying from it daily, the ability to become untreatable before it’s even diagnosed and no cure for it in sight, cancer is possibly the most lethal and infamous of all medical silent killers. There are over 200 types of cancer that may develop in the human body, and while cancers such as skin and eye cancer may appear on the extern of the body and may be easier diagnose before they become life-threatening, cancers such as breast cancer, testicular cancer, lung cancer, and colon cancer are among the deadliest cancers because the symptoms may not manifest until the cancer becomes difficult to treat. While there are some commonly known risk factors associated with developing a cancer, such as old age, smoking’s link to lung cancer, tobacco’s link to mouth cancer, and red meat’s link to colon cancer, there are still no definite ways to prevent cancer, as individuals whom have never smoked a cigarette in their lives may still develop lung cancer or brain cancer. Generally, the best chance one has of surviving cancer is to have it diagnosed early; mammograms serve this purpose for detecting breast cancer and rectal exams serve this purpose for prostate cancer. The treatment for a diagnosed cancer varies depending on the type of cancer, but chemo-therapy, radiotherapy, and surgery are the three most prevalent treatments.

1. Stress

When you broke that vase at age seven and your parents screamed “you’re killing me!” they weren’t exaggerating. Stress is the oldest, most prolific and deadliest of all medical silent killers: 100% of the human population either directly or indirectly suffers from the results of stressful situations and generally stressful lives. The causes of stress are absolutely innumerable, and the effects any given stressful event can have on a single person is extremely unpredictable.

Philosophically, too much stress in the mind can cause sickness in the body, and this belief is rather factual. Stress can be responsible for high blood pressure, mental illnesses such as depression and high anxiety, epileptic seizures, strokes, chronic migraines, and allegedly ulcers. While stress is not a disease in itself, stress may definitely make an existing condition worse through internal and external means; for example the stress of coping with a possibly terminal form of cancer may force a cancer patient into such a depression, they refuse to seek treatment that may otherwise save their life.

Stress is an even deadlier silent killer than the rest because of its contagiousness; one person’s stress often affects someone else, usually those closest to them. A person whom commits suicide as a result of stress may leave behind a family who must now live with the grief that comes with such a stressful event, and this trauma may exist for the rest of their lives. Stress influences and affects the world on a scale possibly twice that of cancer, as oppression, which is a major cause of stress, has led to rebellions, wars, and even genocide. Stress is not only the deadliest silent killer, but also a major source of worldwide violence.

The good news? First, recognize that stress of some form exists in all living human beings, then recognize that while stress is incurable, treating stress is by far one of the cheapest, easiest, and best things a person can ever do. To treat stress all a person must do is go for a walk, talk to friends, play a game, do whatever an individual person loves to do, or just deal with the source of the stress directly. Saving oneself from stress is the definition of irony: overcoming mankind’s worst silent killer by simply not worrying about it.

Interestingly, however, many nations with a heredity monarch have also been described as republics. For example, during the renaissance England was referred to as a republic. Constitutionally (under magnicarta) the rule of the monarch was subject to the approval of the barons who formed the backbone of the early parliamentary system. The many republics that formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were arguably not true republics but rather vassal states to a central dictatorship, so they are not included in this list either.

This article concerns its self with republics of the past that did not survive into the present day. In many cases they have been superseded by, or absorbed into modern republics but were once independent, often powerful nations in their own right.

15. United States of Belgium

In 1789, as a reaction to the centralization of power, a large-scale revolt began in the Austrian Netherlands (present day Belgium). This revolution began in Brabant where an act was signed declaring the independence of the region. Later, several other territories in the Austrian Netherlands followed suit. After defeating the Austrian army these states signed a charter forming a political alliance under the title of the United States of Belgium. The revolution and political restructuring was inspired by the neighboring Dutch Republic, which had ousted its Spanish leaders and formed a similar union over a hundred years sooner. The republic was short lived. It was conquered by Austrian forces under a year later.

14. The Republic of the Rio Grande

In 1840, following the Texas Revolution and during repeated attempts by Mexico to regain its lost territories, a second rebellion began. This time it was a large area immediately to the south of Texas that made the decision to break away from Mexico and form it’s own government. Three renegade Mexican states, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas met on January that year in Laredo and created the Republic of the Rio Grande. Laredo would be their Republic’s temporary capital. However, despite support from the Republic of Texas, the rebellion did not last out the year. The Republic of the Rio Grande was reabsorbed into Mexico in November 1840.

13. The Republic of Hawaii

After deposing it’s monarchy, the Pacific nation of Hawaii established a provisional government before declaring its self to be a republic 1894. Hawaii was annexed into the United States in 1898 and officially became a state in 1959.

There has been a great deal of controversy surrounding the U.S conduct regarding the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. At first the U.S government refused to acknowledge the power change but later changed tack to support the revolutionaries. A number of armed American troops were landed at Hawaii, making it impossible for the Royalists to win back sovereignty of the island nation. The U.S government has issued a formal apology for interfering in what was an internal power struggle.

12. The Republic of Cospaia

When Pope Eugene IV sold a portion of the Papal State to Florence in 1440, the official papers accidentally left out a tiny portion of land. The inhabitants of this area were quick to declare independence as the Republic of Cospaia, a tiny hamlet state consisting of three square miles. Cospaia became a center for tobacco sales in Italy and earned a reputation as a smugglers state. It was invaded by Florence and Papal State in 1826.

11. The Republic of Indian Stream

Indian Stream was the smallest constitutional republic to have ever existed in North America. Named for one of it’s three rivers, Indian stream occupied a small territory between the U.S state of New Hampshire and the Canadian province of Quebec. It was home to around three hundred citizens under president Luther Parker and partially recognized as independent between 1832 and 1835.

The jurisdictional problem of what the Americans called ‘the so called Indian Stream territory’ began with the Treaty of Paris which determined the boundary between Canada and the United States. The treaty defined this as being the most north-western head of the Connecticut River. The problem was that there were three tributaries of the river in the area, any one of which could have been the intended boundary. As a result, both the U.S and the British claimed the area to be their own.

The people of Indian Stream, or ‘streamers’, were remarkably brave. So brave in fact that they invited invasion by the British Empire by invading a nearby Quebec town. This international incident was precipitated by the arrest of a ‘streamer’ by a Canadian Sheriff. The ‘streamer’ had run up large debts in the nearby Canadian hardware store and was to be sentenced to a debtor’s prison. In response, the Indian Stream militia crossed the border to rescue him. Only the threat of invasion by the British caused the small republic see sense. In 1836 the Republic of Indian Stream relinquished its sovereignty to the U.S and became part of the state of New Hampshire.

10. The Republic of Yucatan

Between 1840 and 1848, the Yuctan Peninsular under Mexico, including the present day Mexican states of Yucatan, Campeche and Quintana Roo, declared their independence from the central Mexican government a total of three times. Each time this was in defiance of Mexican President Santa Anna’s refusal to adhere to the Mexican federal constitution and to respect the rights of Yucatan under a later treaty. During these periods of rebellion the breakaway state went by the name of the Republic of Yucatan and was successful in defending its self from Mexican attacks.

The first two times the Republic of Yucatan agreed to rejoin Mexico were the result of political restitution between the two countries. Mexico promised to abide by the constitution and return Yucatan’s privileges as a constitutional Mexican state. However, both times the Mexicans broke their promises forcing the people of the Yucatan to raise their own flags once again.

In 1847, during the last period of Yucatan independence, the ‘Caste War’ broke out. This was a revolt by the native Maya peoples of the Yucatan against the ruling class of Hispanic Europeans. So desperate was the situation faced by the Yucatan government that they wrote off to several major world powers, including the U.S, England and France, offering sovereignty over the Yucatan to whoever offered sufficient support to crush the revolt. The only nation willing to take up this offer was Mexico, and the Republic of Yucatan was once again annexed into Mexico in August 1848.

9. The Republic of Vermont

The U.S state of Vermont declared it’s independence in 1776, ignoring British land claims that had separated it between the jurisdictions of New York and New Hampshire. It was this defiance that later hindered attempts by the people of Vermont to join the United States as official land borders stated that it should not exist. In fact many within the U.S government held the opinion that Vermont should be dissolved and its lands divided between its neighbor states.

Despite remaining independent from the U.S until 1791, Vermont had always intended to become a member state since the defeat of the British. Many of it’s official documents, including its constitution, referred to Vermont as a state, rather than as a republic. Coins minted in Vermont also featured the phrase ‘the fourteenth star’ in anticipation of it’s acceptance into union. Officially, however, the stare was named the Republic of New Connecticut. It was the colloquial name that would catch on. The name Republic of the Green Mountains was shortened to the French ‘les monts vert’ or Vermont.

In 1791, Vermont officially became a member of the United States.

8. The Republic of Texas

The Republic of Texas had a short but tumultuous existence, beginning as a breakaway region of Mexico in 1836 and culminating in it’s annexation by the United States only ten years later.

Texas began it’s revolt against Mexico in a battle for reforms and the decentralization of the Mexican government, but won it’s victory as a newly formed, independent republic. A peace treaty with Mexico saw it gain more territory than either the original Mexican state or the modern U.S state. Texas originally occupied an area covering the entire of its present day borders plus parts of New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado and Wyoming. Although many major powers recognized the sovereignty of Texas, Mexico did not. A dispute over the lines drawn by the peace treaty between the two nations caused Mexico to continue it’s attempts to bring Texas to heel. Mexico believed that the agreed border followed the Nueces River, whereas Texas believed it to be the Rio Grande. This would later spark the Mexican-American War, when Texas became a U.S state.

During it’s brief existence, the Republic of Texas was a center of conflict. Besides the internal power struggle to determine the nations policies, Texas was also under almost continual attack by the embittered Mexicans. In a foolish and entirely racist move the Texas Army attacked the native Comanche people, invading their heartland and declaring that they were no longer welcome on Texas. The Comanches retaliated, sacking several towns and sweeping across the nation in a war that brought the young Republic to it’s knees. Bankrupt, both morally and financially, and facing another invasion from Mexico, Texas turned to the neighboring U.S for help. Texas was annexed into the United States, handing over several of it’s northern territories to the federal government in return for the settling of its debts.

7. The Commonwealth of England

After a long and bloody civil war Oliver Cromwell, a hard nosed republican, transformed the Kingdom of England into a republican commonwealth. The royalist army was defeated, the king had his head cut off and parliament was granted full power over the realm, with the help of the ‘council of state’. However, the people of England were not yet ready to go without a king, they felt all naked, defenseless and downright strange without a rich obnoxious snob lording it over them. So they turned to Cromwell, offering him the crown of England. Cromwell, of course, rejected and told them that the whole war would have been for nothing if they had gotten rid of one king just to create another. However, he did eventually accept the lesser title of Lord Protector, a sort of ‘dictator for life’ position which he used to invade Ireland and Scotland on a somewhat tyrannical Crusade.

After Cromwell’s death in 1658, the title of Lord Protector passed to his son, proving that this was more a monarchy than originally intended. But after a year the true monarchy was reinstalled and Charles II was invited to reclaim his father’s throne.

6. Czechoslovakia

The Republic of Czechoslovakia was formed as a breakaway region of Austria. Campaigns were successful in several of the Austrian Empire, leading to independence and democracy in 1918. The Republic of Czechoslovakia was comprised of four former Austrian territories, the Czech lands of Bohemia and Silesia, Slovakia, and Carpathian Ruthenia. Parts of Bohemia formerly under German control also joined.

In 1938, Czechoslovakia became a target of the blossoming Nazi Empire. After annexing Austria, Nazi Germany demanded control over the Sudaten-lands, the Czechoslovakian border region between Germany and Bohemia. In attempt to prevent an inevitable war, several world leaders agreed to Germany’s demands in the historic Munich Agreement. The government of Czechoslovakia was not consulted. With the hand over of its border defenses in the Sudaten-lands, Czechoslovakia was open to German invasion. Facing a rapid invasion the Eastern half of Czechoslovakia declared Independence, proclaiming themselves to be the Slovak Republic in 1939. Bohemia, now occupied by German forces, became a protectorate of Nazi Germany. Meanwhile, the newly spawned Slovak Republic faced invasion from Hungary who saw the tiny state as an easy target. Facing enemies on two fronts the Slovak government were forced to accept German authority and became a vassal state of the Nazi regime.

Following the second world war, Czechoslovakia was reunited as a free republic once more, with the exception of it’s easternmost tip which was granted to the Ukraine. Between 1948 and 1990 Czechoslovakia became a Socialist Republic under the guidance of the U.S.S.R. It was then restructured into a Federal Republic before it’s separation, in 1992, into the separate nations of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The former Czechoslovakian region of Carpathia remains part of Ukraine.

5. The Dutch Republic

By the late sixteenth century the low countries, a series of small nation states in present day Holland, had been dominated by Spain. The Habsburg family, the most powerful in Spain, had acquired the crowns of almost all of the low countries through a series of profitable wars and marriages. Charles Habsburg and his son, Phillip II of Spain, controlled a total of seventeen Dutch provinces and imposed a series of crippling taxes and genocidal religious laws upon their people. Enter William of Orange, that’s the province of Orange-Nassau, not the fruit. William led a campaign of revolution against his Spanish rulers. This was as much of a religious war as it was a political revolution. William was a protestant and was tired of watching his protestant brethren being tied to stakes, burned alive and generally persecuted.

The Dutch Republic was born, as a union between seven free Dutch states. William was named Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and was heralded as a protestant hero. He was later invited to take the throne of England and continued to fight Catholics, in the form of the Spanish and French, in Europe, the Americas and Ireland.

The Dutch Republic lasted for over two hundred years, a time that is often referred to as the ‘golden age’ of the Netherlands, owing to its naval and trade successes. In 1795 it was invaded by Napoleons army and renamed as the Batavian Republic. It later became the French controlled Kingdom of Holland and was annexed into France. Following the French occupation the country became the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as it remains today.

Otherwise known as the Republic of the United Netherlands, the Dutch Republic influenced the formation of the United States of America, the constitution of which is said to have been largely based on that of the Dutch.

4. The Republic of Ragusa

The Republic of Ragusa, or Republic of Dubrovnik as it is sometimes known, was a small republic in Southern Dalmatia, present day Croatia. Essentially a city state, the people of Dubrovnik controlled a small stretch of coastline along the Adriatic. It was a major contender to the naval might of Venice and a major competitor to the Venetian’s trade empire. Ragusa was invaded by Venice in the fourth crusade, in the early thirteenth century, but regained it’s independence by the mid fourteenth century.

Following it’s freedom from Venice, Ragusa officially accepted the sovereignty of the Hungarian monarchy but continued as a free member of the Hungarian Empire. Following the Hungarian period, Ragusa formed an alliance with the Ottoman Empire.

The relationship with the Ottomans proved to be a beneficial arrangement for Ragusa. They officially paid homage to the Sultan and paid him an annual tribute. In exchange they were given protection and allowed access to the black sea trade routes that had once made Venice and Genoa rich. Ragusa became a full protectorate of the Ottoman Empire in 1684.

Ragusa was a grand republic for hundreds of years. It may have been small but it commanded an epic trade fleet, which kept the citizens of Dubrovnik wealthy and powerful. The fact that the Republic spent as much time paying homage to various monarchs as it did living the life of a truly free republic does not diminish the achievements and long history of this forgotten nation.

As the spice trade became dominated by far-voyaging ships from Portugal and Spain, the Black Sea became less important in the Spice and Silk trades from the East. As a result Ragusa went into decline. It was eventually conquered by the French under Napoleon in 1808. It now the southernmost tip of Croatia.

Despite being a republic, Ragusa was ruled by the aristocracy. There was no monarch and power was shared, but the common citizens had few rights and were considered to be a subordinate class.

3. The Most Serene Republic of Venice

As the Western Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, shrunk back towards its capital in Constantinople, Romanised civilizations in Northern Italy were left defenseless to the barbarian peoples of the steppe. For the sake of mutual defense, several communities in the Venetian lagoon banded together. The result was the formation of the city-state of Venice, later to become the Most Serene Republic of Venice.

The Republic of Venice formed part of the Byzantine Empire. As a kingdom of the Empire it did official homage to Byzantium, a relationship that would exist until the very end of the Empire. However, as a republic Venice gained independence and became a center of commerce and diplomacy. It’s ship building industry brought great wealth, as did the import of spices and silk from the East into Europe. Later, Venice used its wealth and ship building capabilities to become a great naval power that dominated the Adriatic. Venice established colonies along the coast of present day Albania and Croatia and as far as Crete in the Mediterranean.

Although known primarily as a merchant city, Venice participated greatly in the crusades and controlled the largest navy in the Mediterranean. In the early fifteenth century, the republic focused on expanding into Northern Italy, reaching as far as the Alps and the borders of Austria and Switzerland. It enjoyed independence for a thousand years before Napoleon invaded in 1797. During this time it had been one of the richest, most powerful and most influential nations in Europe.

Clearly, Venice was more than just a port. In fact it was a small Christian empire, the true heir of the Byzantines. When it’s ally Byzantium was overrun by the Ottoman Empire, Venice continued to fight for Christian supremacy in Greece, the Balkans and the Aegean.

2. The Most Serene Republic of Genoa

The Most Serene Republic of Genoa can, in many ways, be seen as a counterpart to the Most Serene Republic of Venice. The two shared the same title, were both historic centers of trade and commerce, and shared opposite sides of Northern Italy. Like Venice, Genoa occupied comparatively little territory on the mainland but had several colonies in the Mediterranean. In terms of scale the Genoese had the Venetians beat. They controlled the large island of Corsica, several islands in the Aegean including Lesbos and Samos, and Tabarka on the coast of Tunisia. But unlike the Venitians’ small Adriatic/Ionian Empire, the Genoese went much further than the confines of the Mediterranean. They conquered lands in the Black Sea, including the Crimean Peninsular and Georgia.

Genoa was a major figure in the Crusades, providing naval might and earning a considerable profit from the business of transporting soldiers and supplies from Europe to the East. It also made powerful allies in the Spanish, by supporting the conquest of Sardinia by the Spanish Kingdom of Arragon – a move which also proved to be very profitable.

In the late 14th century, however, after a brief war with the Republic of Venice, Genoa went into decline. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire cut the republic off from it’s lands in the Black Sea and eventually the Aegean. Genoa its self was occupied by the French and only saved from complete domination by their Spanish allies. But after a brief revival, the Republic fell from grace once again and was forced to sell it’s remaining possession, the island of Corsica, to the French. Like most European nations, Genoa was conquered by Napoleon in 1797. Napoleon briefly changed the name of Genoa to the Ligurian Republic but later annexed it as part of France. After the defeat of Napoleon, Genoa was given to the Kingdom of Sardinia, the kingdom it had once helped to invade.

1. The Roman Republic

The Roman Republic has been described as the greatest republic in history. Whilst it in no way lives up to the advancements of present day republics, Rome was certainly the most successful government of it’s type for a period of several hundred years, in terms of scale, military might, and technological advancement.

Rome began it’s life as a kingdom and was later structured as an Empire, but the republican period saw the greatest expansions. By the end of its life, between 44 and 27 BC, the Roman Republic controlled the entire of present day Italy, France, Greece, Macedonia, Albania, Portugal, Israel, Lebanon and Syria, plus most of Spain, parts of Turkey and parts of North Africa, including Tunisia, and the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus and the Republic of Malta.

The Roman government was carefully structured so as not to allow any one individual too much influence. However, by the end of the first century BC powerful militants had amassed such power that establishing an Imperial structure would be the only way to restore stability. Opinion varies on when exactly the Roman Republic completely reformed into the Roman Empire, but the installation of Julius Caesar as dictator of Rome in 44 BC was surely the turning point.

Parents need to be extra vigilant now, not just about what their kids watch and read, but what they’re playing too.

Just a few short years ago though, before modern technology allowed the creation of super realistic characters and scenarios, that suck even adults into their fantasy worlds with the hyper realism they display, there were simpler game stations, like the SNES, or Super Nintendo.

In the nineties, when the Super Nintendo Entertainment System was release, most games were kid friendly, although there were a few that were targeted at an older audience. Parents, however, had lots of options for their kids, and didn’t have to search through racks and racks of games about criminals, horrors or other grown up material to find one or two they could safely buy.

While no one would ever dream of suggesting a return to the bad old days of the Atari (heaven forbid!) with its giant pixels, monotonous theme songs and stilted game play, older machines line the Super Nintendo do still offer lots of great options for kids, that won’t leave parents panicking, and here are our top ten favorites:

10. Rock ‘N Roll Racing

One thing you can’t go wrong with, when choosing a game for kids, is a racing game. Whether it’s bikes, cars or imaginary vehicles, the thrill of racing is great fun, and you’re usually guaranteed no outright violence or other questionable elements. Just make sure your kids understand that while they may be the masters on the console, taking your car for a joy ride is a definite no no.

Rock ‘N Roll Racing is a track racing game, set in the future, with a pretty unique viewpoint – you watch the action from an isometric angle, giving it a more three D feel – not behind or inside your car, as usual.

It’s got a soundtrack of rock classics, like “Bad to the Bone” so it lives up to its name, and aside from racing, there are other things to do, like set traps or oil slicks up to foil your competitors, or even fire lasers or rockets at those in front of you. Rest assured though – it’s harmless and innocent, with no gore, so it’s perfect for kids!

9. Earthworm Jim

It’s a classic theme, that’s been used for years – immortalized by the Mario Brothers, and followed by many others. Ordinary guy needs to rescue princess from evil monster / boss.

Of course, in this instance, it’s not a guy, but an earthworm, called Jim, who finds a robotic suit that gives him some pretty special powers. Still, he does set off to rescue Princess What’s-Her-Name from Queen Slug-For-A-Butt…

Aside from being based on a classic, can’t go wrong gaming story line, it’s got some really cool cartoon style graphics, and nice, smooth animation, making it fun to play. Besides, what kid wouldn’t enjoy the prospect of getting to be an earthworm with super powers for a while?

8. Super Mario All Stars

I don’t think there’s a person alive who grew up in the eighties or nineties who didn’t play at least one of the Mario Brothers’ games. I mean, come on, they made a movie out of the game, so it’s gotta be one of the top games ever right?

Of course, no Nintendo would be complete without Mario and Luigi, so with the SNES, they’ve obliged by packaging all three together, remastered and with updated graphics and sound. Plus, they’ve added a few “lost levels” and the “real” Mario Bros 2, previously only available in Japan.

It’s a fantastic game for kids, but be warned, hearing the classic theme tune and seeing the games again might have you jockeying for a chance to play. Can I get a “but it’s my tuuuuurn…?”

7. Kirby Superstar

You had to love the old games. In Kirby Superstar, you were the same lovable little pink bubble guy, and even when you fired at the bad guys, there was never much more than a fire ball. No blood, guts and other horrors like there are in newer games at least!

This one came out on the game boy, and the NES, and was recreated pretty much the same as the originals, with a few new twists. There are 8 mini adventures on the game, with five actual adventures, and three games. One of them, the Great Cave Offensive, is actually a big world to explore, gathering treasures.

When it comes to good clean fun for kids, you can’t do much better than good old Kirby.

6. Super Mario Kart

Again, the Mario Brothers were the stars of this classic. Unlike the other Mario games, this one was on the race track, and was actually the precursor to all other kart racing games.

Dating back to 1992, this little racing game quickly become one of the best selling SNES games, because it was just so fun to play! Racing each other in two player mode, around the track, tossing turtle shells and collecting invincibility stars was a blast. Other features, like the lightning bolts that shrunk other players, allowing you to ride over them, squashing them and gaining time.

For such a simple concept, this game really is addictive, and you, and your kids, are likely to spend hours playing against each other, just as we all did way back in the nineties.

5. Donkey Kong Country 1 and 2

For their time, the Donkey Kong Country titles boasted some world class, 3D like graphics. They were also a lot of fun to play!

Donkey Kong Country 1 was a Mario Bros style platformer, with Donkey Kong and his sidekick, Diddy Kong, off to retrieve the banana horde back from the Kremlings (crocodile looking baddies!) There are lots of bonus levels and little surprises in this one, making it ideal for endless hours of fun!

Building on the success of Donkey Kong Country 1, and released just a year later, Country 2 achieved what most sequels attempt, but fail: it was actually better than the first! Bigger, with better graphics and really cool levels like pirate ships, mine shafts and amusement parks, it’s a super fun romp once again, where you lead Diddy, and Dixie, his girlfriend, on a quest to rescue Donkey Kong from the Kremlings.

Both of these games have become classics, and offer some really enjoyable game play, that kids and grownups will love. As with the best games out there, they’re not too easy, but also not impossible, and combine thinking with action, so you’re constantly stimulated.

Then again almost as long as there have been video games, there’s been Donkey Kong. Innocent, but fun, these are perfect games for kids.

4. Secret of Mana

This little role playing game starts out like most – a boy, destined to be a hero, yada yada yada. Then it gets more interesting. As you travel through the game, you meet a girl and a sprite, who become your companions. Instead of being just an ordinary slash and chop type adventure, where you indiscriminately make your way through the baddies on your quest though, they’ve made it interesting, by adding a power meter.

As you use up your power, it depletes, giving you a weaker attack, and making it tricky to navigate through the game. Your quest is to save the world from being over taken by an evil empire, and despite being a well used theme, it’s got enough originality in it to still make it fun.

The game is long, giving around twenty hours of uninterrupted play, and extra things like spells you can learn, and being able to name your own player all add to the uniqueness. Plus, there is a three player mode, so you can play with a couple of friends – always fun! You will need a multi tap adapter to take advantage of that feature though.

Since there’s no real violence, as with most SNES games, and since it’s got all these little extras, and is actually quite an interesting little quest, it should keep kids occupied for days on end.

3. The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past

When talking classic games, The Legend of Zelda will almost always come up. Realizing this when they created the SNES, there was absolutely no question that another Zelda title had to be brought out, and this is it.

With a similar look and feel to the original Zelda, this has the improved graphics of the SNES, and gives Link two worlds to explore, plus loads of new features, items and game elements. In this game though, an evil wizard is plotting to take over Hyrule. Link has to find the Master Sword to stop him. His quest takes him from Hyrule to the Dark World, where the scheming wizard lives. Portals, magic, the fight of good versus evil, and the winning Zelda graphics, updated for the SNES all combined to make A Link to the Past one of the best SNES titles ever – whatever your age.

Classic adventure, fantasy and intrigue, all packaged with nice graphics, and perfect for kids.

2. Super Mario World 2: Yoshi’s Island

Not surprisingly, like most cult classics, the Mario Brothers got a prequel, and this is it. As Yoshi, your quest is to reunite baby Mario and baby Luigi, who has been kidnapped.

Yoshi runs through the game gobbling up enemies with his long tongue, and laying eggs. He throws the eggs at his enemies, but, if he misses, baby Mario gets knocked off his back, floating in a bubble as a timer runs. If you don’t catch him in time, he floats off to baby Luigi, locked in the dungeon.

A really cool game, with some nice graphics, it’s entertaining enough to keep kids, and grownups, busy for a long time, and with virtually no violence, apart from the egg throwing, parents can rest assured that it’s kid friendly.

1. Super Mario World

Yup, yet another Mario title, but being Nintendo, and being for kids, that’s to be expected! This was the game that the Mario Brothers introduced Yoshi for the first time though. Similar in many ways to Mario 3, with a cape that let you fly like the raccoon suit did, and a map system, that this time allowed you to travel back to world’s you’d already visited, it also has the most hidden levels and alternative routes, making it a big game, that’ll keep you busy for a while.

The reason the Mario Brothers games did so well, with kids and with parents, is that they combined fantasy with adventure, gave you a concrete goal: save someone from the bad guys, and packaged it all in a colorful, non violent, kid friendly game. If only modern game manufacturers would take a leaf out of that book, there’d be a lot more titles that are kid friendly on the shelves today.

Then again, with the explosion in grown up gamers, game manufacturers are probably following the money, but anyone who grew up in the nineties almost certainly played Super Mario World, or one of the other Mario’s, and everyone I know has fond memories. Heck, just hearing the theme song brings on a nostalgic smile. Maybe we’ll see more of these sometime, but if not, dust of the old Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and let your kids find out what we were all up to all those years ago.

You can have courage by doing nothing, or by speaking your mind. Courage is visible in children, adults, and even, sometimes, in the animals we share the world with. Every great thing we set out to do, whether its raise children, start a business, study for a degree, or change the world, takes courage.

All through history, there have been men or women who have been called courageous, but their deeds have been vastly different. Neither their circumstances nor their goals have been the same, so defining the type of person who is courageous is well nigh impossible. Martin Luther King was seen as courageous, for his unwavering commitment to ending the oppression of his people, but then, so too was Helen Keller, for having the courage to live her life, in spite of being blind and deaf. Business men have been courageous, as have soldiers on the field of battle.

Children too have been courageous, and one such example was Anne Frank, the little Jewish girl whose diary cemented the human experience of the atrocities of World War Two for all of us.

The truth is, we all have the capacity to be courageous within us. In order to bring it out, we need to be put into a situation, whether personal, professional or social, where to act would result in the greater good. If we choose to act in order to achieve that greater good.

It is therefore in our actions, rather than in our nature, that courage resides, and here are our top ten ways to apply this in your own life, in no particular order.

10. Be Guided By Your Conscience

Some of the most courageous people in the world have become that because their conscience simply would not allow them to ignore what was happening around them.

Mahatma Gandhi for example, endured great personal strife, in order to elevate his people’s position in South Africa, when the reigning regime was subjecting them to acute oppression. He did so without violence however, choosing, instead, to use his famous passive resistance technique, not reacting to anything, but also refusing to back down.

What made this courageous was the fact that had he ignored the plight of his people, he would have lived a comfortable life. He chose not to ignore it, and instead, was tormented for his resistance.

When allowing your conscience to guide you, the key is to see the injustice, whether at work, in your country or town, or your personal life, and do something about it. While ignoring this type of situation, particularly if you are not directly affected, is certainly easier, taking a stand is far more courageous.

9. Feel the Fear, and Act Anyway

Courage is not the absence of fear. True courage is feeling fear, but doing what needs to be done anyway.

This could be anything in your life. Even approaching your boss at work for a raise, if you feel you deserve it, takes courage. Anything that makes you afraid, or nervous, but still needs to be done, requires courage.

Of course, the trade off is that by having courage, by going to speak to your boss, or doing whatever else it is that scares you, you come that much closer to achieving your goals. Never plucking up the courage to do or say what you want to, will mean that instead of an active participant in your life, you become a bystander, driven and steered by others.

8. Never Give Up

When you really, truly want something, and it seems unattainable, getting it, whatever it may be, will take both courage, and determination.

In fact, the perseverance to carry on, to keep trying, when all seems lost, and your goal seems impossible to reach, is in itself a form of courage.

Imagine, for example, that you lose your job. You fail to find work, through no fault of your own, and slowly, the life you have built begins to crumble beneath your feet. The easy option would be to give up. Decide that life is conspiring against you, and allow whatever will happen to happen. The courageous choice would be to keep getting up every morning, and going out there to find a job, knowing that eventually, one day, your luck will change.

Even in this simple example, it’s easy to see that courage need not be a deed or word, but merely a state of mind. If you can cultivate a courageous state of mind, and never give up on what you want, eventually, you will reach your goals.

7. Embrace the Unknown

When you think about why we fear the dark, the answer is simple. Darkness removes sight, leaving everything that lies within it unknown.

It’s this fear of the unknown, rather than the darkness itself, that leads children to imagine monsters under their beds, or in their closets.

Of course, while most of us outgrow the fear of the dark, we remain scared of the unknown in our everyday lives. We stay in jobs we hate because they are secure and stable, rather than pursuing our dreams. We stay in unhappy relationships, because the prospect of being alone in an unfriendly world makes us afraid. In fact, we willingly accept any situation, as long as nothing in our lives is changed, or too different to what we are used to.

It is, however, in the unknown that the greatest discoveries are made, and having the courage to embrace the unknown, and to accept and welcome change, even when it is scary, will almost certainly lead you to a more fulfilling and happy life.

Maybe you can’t quit your job, or leave your marriage, but you can certainly try new things, learn new ideas, and experience more of life. Can’t you?

6. Fake it Until You Make It

Aristotle, the famous philosopher, once said: “Moral excellence comes about as a result of habit. We become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts.”

What this means is that you don’t have to be courageous to show courage. You do need to act, rather than think, speak or dream though. Even if you are quaking in your boots, if you can pretend to have courage, and do or say something, you will seem courageous.

Of course, once you’ve pretended to be courageous for a while, and discovered that your world does not, in fact, collapse around your ears, you will be able to stop pretending. You will have found courage.

5. Truly Believe

If you’re not totally committed to something, and you do not believe, one hundred percent, that what you are doing, saying or dreaming, is worth it, you will never find true courage.

There’s a saying that goes: “If it’s worth doing, it’s worth doing right.” This applies to being courageous too. If you are not completely sure that you’re doing the right thing, you will find that somewhere along the line, your courage will fail you. You’ll decide that it’s not worth fighting for anymore, and that will be it.

If, however, the thing that you require courage for is something that you truly want, and believe in, finding the courage to do it will be easy. You won’t have to think about it, or if you do, the answer will come to you quickly. Save your courage for those times. If you fight battles that aren’t really worth it, you’ll use up your energy and courage before you even get to the ones that are.

4. Ignore the Nay Sayers

No matter what you choose to do in life, whether it’s study towards something, open a business, go into politics, or anything else, there are going to be negative people around you, who will try to convince you that you can’t achieve your goal.

If you really want to get to where you want to be though, you’re going to have to block out their negativity, and just get on with it. By all means, take good advice when it’s given, but always remember that no one but you determines your success or failure in life. You are the architect of your own destiny, and if you allow others to influence you, you will never find out what you really could have achieved.

3. Be Prepared to Fail

Winston Churchill, famous British statesman, once said:“Courage is going from failure to failure without losing enthusiasm.”

What he meant is that on the road to success, whether professionally, personally, or in some other goal, most of us will endure at least one failure. The trick is to get up after you fail, dust yourself off, and have another crack at it.

Courage is realizing that each failure merely brings you that one step closer to eventual success. So rather than fearing failures, and allowing that fear to prevent you from even trying, rather look at failures as what they are: learning experiences. Find the lesson, think about it, take it in, regroup, and then try a different tactic.

Using business as an example, if you look at some of the most successful business men in history, their ultimate success was preceded by a string of failures. Instant success is rare, if not completely unheard of, and whatever it is you’re trying to do, you will have small failures on your way to ultimate success, so take them as what they are: steps. Remember: failure is not the end; it’s just another step in the process.

2. Start Small

Of course, looking for courage, when we’ve never displayed it before, is difficult, if the thing we are trying to achieve is so big that we can’t imagine how we will ever do that.

Finding your own courage doesn’t have to be about a grand gesture at first. You don’t have to do something that will get your name in the history books to have courage. If you’ve never stood up for yourself, start with that. Start standing your ground, asserting yourself. If you want to achieve business success, but you’re scared to leave your job, work on your idea part time. If you see an injustice, even something small, and you are unhappy about it, speak up.

Making a start is what is important, and as your confidence in yourself grows, so will your courage, until, eventually, you’ll be completely sure that you are invincible, and ready to take on whatever the world throws at you.

1. Gather Your Allies

You can bet your bottom dollar that if you look at the truly courageous through history, there was at least one person that believed in them, and stood by them. A mentor, partner or friend, there’s always someone, standing in the wings, rooting for them.

Finding the people in your life who believe in you is very important if you want to find, and maintain courage. They don’t even need to truly understand your goals, although it helps. What they are there for is to help you get up when you fall, to remind you why you want what you want, and to tell you to keep going when all you want to do is give up.

Having a support structure, no matter what the situation, is often the difference between success and failure. Even one person who believes in you can give you the strength to carry on, when you want to quit.

So look around you, at your friends, family and acquaintances, and identify the people who are going to be your allies. Tell them a little bit about what you are doing, and why. Use them as a sounding board, and ask them to stand by you. You’re not looking for approval. Just support.

No, it seems we need to look a little closer at ancient life to identify the professions that have endured through the eons. Our modern world did not suddenly spring into being as it was, and it has taken thousands of years of human evolution to bring us to the point at which we find ourselves today.

If any one of the professions of ancient times had not been discovered, or been discovered later, or not pursued, the world as we know it would probably not exist. We would almost certainly have evolved along different lines, and ended up somewhere different.

However, the early professions were not driven by choice, but rather by necessity. For the most part, the careers or professions people chose were of use to the tribe, and to their long term survival, and it was only later that we began to have the luxury of choosing which calling we would like to pursue.

With thanks to those earliest pioneers of technology and knowledge, here is our list of the top ten professions still in existence since ancient times, in no particular order.

10. Doctor

That’s right. Medical, or at least healing professions, have been around since time began. Ever since the first human stumbled across the first herb that aided in healing, humans have been on a quest to cure disease, and heal wounds.

Early evidence has shown that even in prehistoric times, surgery to relieve pressure on the brain were performed, with skulls bearing carefully drilled or cut holes providing testimony to the fact. Early medical professionals assisted with childbirth, tended to battle wounds, and created potions and poultices to treat various diseases and ailments,

Medicine has come a long way, and in the early days, it was more of a case of hit and miss, with medicine men and woman applying their own educated guesses, and the knowledge they’d gathered themselves, to illnesses and wounds, but, since they were primarily healers, before all else, they qualify as medical professionals.

I’m sure, even in the early days that when one had been attacked by a wild beast, or injured in battle with a neighboring clan, that you were glad of the attention of someone more learned than the rest of the tribe to tend to your wounds!

9. Priest

This certainly another of the longest enduring professions. Since we know, from artifacts like the various statuettes to mother earth, dating back to prehistory, that were found in Europe, that people have, since time began, believed in something, whether mother earth, or later the pagan religions, or sun worship in Egypt, among countless others.

Shamans from early tribes looked after the spiritual well being of their flock, albeit using unconventional, by today’s standards, methods such as inducing trances. Their pursuit of knowledge of the afterlife and the mystical made them feared and respected members of their tribes.

However, since their primary function was to serve as a conduit between the mortal world, and the world of the supernatural and spiritual, they can legitimately be called priests, and are therefore on our list.

8. Jeweler

We know, from ancient artifacts unearthed around the world, dating back to prehistory, as well as ancient civilizations, like the Chinese, Egyptian, Roman and Greek, that even when survival was foremost on our collective minds, we liked to adorn ourselves with trinkets.

Whether the earliest stone and bone talismans of prehistoric man, or the more modern gold and precious stone adornments of the great civilizations, jewelery has been a part of our lives since time immemorial. We’ve coveted the beautiful creations of the jeweler for as long as human memory endures, and to this day, there are few that can walk past a jeweler without stopping to look at the shiny, expensive trinkets that glitter in the window.

Since we were so enamored by those pretty, but ultimately useless items, there had to be men who made them, those craftsmen with the skill to create items above the ordinary, and it was they who were the first jewelers. Over the years, they’ve refined their craft, new materials have been discovered, and the advent of mechanization added sub categories such as watchmakers, but their purpose remains the same: to create objects of beauty for adornment and status.

7. Weapons Dealer

It’s a sad fact that while humans have been evolving, we’ve spent a fair amount of time killing each other.

From the earliest days, when weapons were limited to chipped stone arrow tips and axes, there have been those with the skill to create weapons that kill. Of course, millennia ago, when we first began making those weapons, they were used not only to kill each other, but also to hunt the animals that would feed the tribe.

It was only later, once we had tamed the beasts, and become farmers, that weapons became predominantly for use on each other. Of course, even in those earliest days, squabbles broke out between rival tribes, so there are no doubt those weapons were used to shed human blood too.

Perhaps it’s a silent commentary on human nature, but weapons dealers were certainly among the first professionals.

6. Artist

Following hot on the heels of one of our most destructive enduring professions is one of the most creative.

Ever since humans first began standing upright, and became cognizant of the world around us, and our part in it, we have sought to document that interaction, and, in the earliest times, before we had written language to do so, pictures were used to depict great battles, successful hunts, or merely the beauty of the world around us.

Ancient caves, filled with this early art, are dotted around the world, silently providing us insight into the world of our forebears, and this trade has endured through the ages. Museums are filled with objet dating back hundreds, if not thousands of years, each of which provides us some insight into the world of our ancestors, even if only to affirm that while they may have lacked some of our sophistication, they had ample appreciation for beauty.

Since then, art has remained a visual representation of the world around us, and as the world becomes more sophisticated and complex, so too does the work of the artist. Whether for beauty alone, or for social commentary, art will surely continue to endure until the end of the world as we know it.

5. Tailor

At some point after humans became self aware, we realized the usefulness of covering our bodies with the skins of the animals we had hunted.

At first, this was merely for function: to keep out the cold weather of the world only beginning to emerge from the great ice age. Later, however, we began to realize that the clothing we wore could be beautiful, and provide status, as well as showcasing our wealth to the world around us.

Since there were no department stores in those days, where one could pick up a nifty little number, people began to craft their own clothing, attempting to imbue it with some of their own personality, making it a unique reflection of their own style.

Of course, some showed more skill in the art of cutting, stitching and adorning these garments, and it was they who became the earliest tailors, manufacturing clothing for ceremonial purposes and so on, in exchange for items bartered by the people who desired them.

4. Architect and Builder

When we first ventured out into the world, having come down from the trees, and begun walking upright, we realized the necessity of shelter to keep out the harsh elements.

Those first shelters were undoubtedly caves, natural formations providing shelter without the need for construction. However, soon the population began to outgrow the available caves. Some desired to explore other areas, where there were no mountains, and therefore, no caves.

It was then that the professions of architect and builder was first born. While the entire tribe was involved in the creation of their shelters, there were one or two who stood out, for their creative solutions to the problems of creating a tribal home, and it was they who became the first builder’s ad architects.

Of course, the next time that tribe needed to expand their housing or other structures, they turned once more to those who had shown the most ingenuity in their first project.

Through the ages since then, human architects, builders and engineers have achieved many spectacular feats, from the marble cities of Greece and Rome, to the pyramids in Egypt, down through history to the modern world and its sky scrapers. And all the while, the architects and builders have been there.

3. Accountants and Bankers

We know that currency, in its modern form, only came into being much later on, but even so, when out earliest ancestors were still hunting and gathering, someone had to keep track of the tribe’s assets, particularly in terms of their food stores. And since food and other tribal assets were the primary choice for barter, they were, in fact, keeping track of the tribe’s wealth.

We also know that by biblical times, there were money lenders, since they were famously mentioned in the Bible, and other books from the time, so the banking, or at least credit, system were well established by then.

2. Authors

Written language came into being some time after we humans first began to live as an organized society and began speaking, however, in those early days, when there was no TV or any other form of entertainment, long nights spent around the communal fire had to be filled with something.

So the story teller was born. The story teller wove fantastic tales of mystical beasts, great hunts and other entertaining fare, captivating the tribe with their flare for words. Those early tales were carried down through oral tradition, but almost as soon as writing was invented, they began to be captured for eternity through stone carvings, and later on parchment.

It’s doubtful we would know as much as we do about our early ancestors if the writers in those ancient times were not driven by the need to immortalize their lives in script, and even though they wrote ordinary tales of daily life for the most part, they were nonetheless authors.

1. Musicians

Another enduring art from our earliest days is that of the musician. Sometime after we first emerged from the woods and began our journey to the top of the food chain, one of those cave dwellers picked up two sticks and began beating them together in rhythm. The first percussion instrument was born.

As soon as people realized that they could make rhythmic music, they began experimenting, devising drums, shakers and other instruments, and soon after, they probably had the very first band in existence.

A far cry from the modern rock concert, but still, enough to get the tribe on their feet – dancing and chanting around the campfire.

Since then, we’ve learned to created wind instruments, and those with strings. Great composers have crafted timeless symphonies, and we’ve learnt to apply electricity to instruments, amplifying the sound to fill enormous stadiums, but still, the impact of music on the human soul remains as primitive as it was in those early days. Music has the power, even without words, to stir emotion. To evoke sadness or joy. It speaks to that primal part of us that remains, unchanged, from ancient days.

We’re so busy taking advantage of all the time saving devices and advancements out there, that we have failed to notice that our lives are becoming busier and busier with each added responsibility and activity.

The result of all this is that our focus has become diffused. Frantically we multi task, making sure that our home, work and social lives stay up to scratch. Of course, nothing is perfect, but everything is good enough. With so many things on our plates, it’s well nigh impossible to focus on just one or two of the most important things, and so, we never achieve our full potential.

What about when we really need to focus though. What if there’s a critical project that needs to be completed, or if something else arises that requires our attention. How can we improve our focus, still achieving all the things we need to do, and making sure they’re all done right. Focus and dedication are the two keys to getting anything done, and the better your focus is, the easier you will find it to achieve all of your goals, whatever they may be.

Here are our top ten tips to improve your focus.

10. Decide on Your Goal

The very first step in getting focused is to set a goal.

You wouldn’t go on a trip with no destination in mind would you? Trying to get focused without a goal amounts to the same thing. A lot of running around, with no progress.

Your goal could be broad, such as “make more time for me” or more pinpointed, such as “improve my performance at work and get a promotion.” Your goal should be backed up by sound reasoning too. If you’re trying to do better at work, why? Do you want a raise or a promotion; are you trying to protect your job?

Knowing your goal is the very first step in improving your focus, and of course, you can have short, medium and long term goals. Whatever they are, figure them out, and write them down.

9. List the Steps

Once you’ve figured out your goal, you’re probably sitting looking at a piece of paper with a word or two scrawled on it, thinking that it seems just as unattainable as ever.

Looking at anything like that is daunting, and can make you want to crumple up that piece of paper, forget your goals, deal with having less focus, and go back to your old system, of fixing whatever’s most broken first. That’s why it’s important to break everything into easy to manage, bite sized pieces, and tackle them one at a time.

Remember the old saying “Rome wasn’t built in a day?” that’s the same reason we break things up into steps. It helps us look at the building blocks, rather than just that one overwhelming task.

Setting timeframes can also improve focus. Give each item on your to do list a timeframe, and you’ll be adding motivation to get it completed.

8. Give Yourself Visual Reminders

When you’re trying to stay focused, giving yourself something visual to remind you of your goal will help enormously.

If, for example, you’re focusing on getting a promotion, get yourself a black or white board, and put it up somewhere where you will see it. Write messages to yourself, reminding yourself of the goal. If you want to lose weight, keep your focus on the goal by putting a picture on the fridge. Its clichéd, but it works.

Even post it notes can help. Stick a few where you’ll see them. Put them on your computer monitor, bedside lamp, and bathroom mirror. Wherever you’ll see them, and be reminded of your goals works.

Another great idea is to put reminders on your cell phone. All too often, we write things in a diary, and then forget to check it, rendering the effort futile. A reminder, with an alarm, on your cell phone, will help you get, and keep on track, helping you focus, and removing the worry that you will forget something crucial.

Last, but not least, get yourself an in tray, whether at home or in the office. Seeing physical files, documents, bills or other items in your tray will help remind you to focus, and to achieve those tasks on your list!

Visual reminders help us stay focused and motivated, which leads to achieving goals quicker and easier.

7. Talk to Yourself

It’s another cliché, but then, clichés become that because they’re used over and over. And the reason for that is that they work.

Giving yourself a pep talk before work, or first thing in the morning, whether in the mirror while you get ready, or in the car on the way to work, will help you remember your goals, whatever they may be, and to keep focused on them.

Appoint yourself your own life coach, or motivational speaker, and remind yourself often what your goals are, and that focus, determination, hard work, and a little bit of luck, can get you wherever you want to be.

6. Clear Out the Clutter

A cluttered house, office or desk is unlikely to inspire motivation or focus in anyone, so if you want to get, and stay focused, you’re going to have to spend a little time banishing all the junk you’ve accumulated over the years.

Start small. Take it one room or one drawer of your desk at a time. If you can’t bear to part with papers, in case you’ll need them sometime in the future, invest in storage boxes to keep them safe, label them, and stack them on a shelf or in a cupboard.

Keep going, and eventually, every physical area of your life will be organized, helping you to get your mind organized. Plus, it’s easier, and more pleasant, to do anything if the area you do it in is well organized, clear and uncluttered. Be brutal if you have to, but get it done.

5. Learn to Stay Calm

Panicking is one thing that can kill focus very, very quickly. When we get stressed, and start to panic, we stop reasoning, and start doing indiscriminately.

Have you ever met someone who always seems busy, but gets very little done? Chances are, they are in a constant state of panic, acting and reacting without planning or thinking about what they’re doing and why. They bounce frantically from one task to the next, never finishing anything, always rushed, unfocused and unproductive.

Train yourself to remain calm. Take deep breaths, count to ten, or talk to yourself. Do whatever it takes to keep your mind focused on the goal. Once you can do that, and keep focus on your immediate goal, you’ll start doing things that will help you reach your goal quicker, and the more you practice, the better you’ll get.

Pretty soon, you’ll be planning every step, thinking about every action, and keeping your focus much easier than before.

4. Delete

We all want to do it all, and have it all. Unfortunately, however, there’s only so much focus to go around, and the more irons you have in the fire, the more likely you are to lose focus on all of them.

Take a look at your schedule, and figure out if there are things you can strip away, giving yourself less to do, and narrowing your focus to the really important things. If you find duplicates, for example, taking a yoga class and going to the gym, choose one, and scrap the other.

Figure out which activities are the most important to you, and your short, medium and long term goals, and plan your day, week and month around those, making sure you leave yourself some down time in between.

A big part of deleting is learning to say no gracefully. Have you ever said yes to someone automatically, only to realize later on that you actually don’t have the time, or the energy, to accomplish the task you agreed to? Not only does that steal focus from the things that are important to you, but it can eventually lead to resentment. Rather say, I’ll think about it, and then do just that. If you honestly have the time, agree, but if you don’t, just say no, apologize for being unable to help, and be done with it. I can guarantee you, true friends and family won’t hold it against you, and if they do, that’s their problem. Not yours.

3. Delegate

For most people, delegating is one of the most difficult time management skills to master. Handing something over to someone else is a scary prospect, since it means you no longer have complete control, but if you want to narrow down your responsibilities, and gain more focus, you have to reduce the number of worries you have.

It could be as simple as asking your spouse to pick up the dry cleaning, or handing over simpler tasks at work, but whatever you do delegate means one less thing you need to do yourself, and one less thing to split your focus on.

Delegating could even mean hiring house help, or getting an assistant or child minder. Anything that splits your load will help you focus more decisively on the important things.

The key to delegating though is to delegate, and then actually give up control, trusting the person you have given the task to get it done. Giving away some of the problems that are impacting on your focus and then micro managing them makes no sense whatsoever, and will actually cause you to lose focus even more.

2. Simplify

Simplifying your life is actually an easily accomplished thing, if you set your mind to it. Things like banking online instead of rushing out during lunch, or using bought pasta sauce instead of homemade, sorting out your closet and finding your favorite work outfits, putting them one side, all mean there’s less to think about, meaning more time, and more focus, for the important things.

Paring down, and automating basic functions and tasks , so that there’s barely any thought or effort involved, frees up more time for you to focus on the important stuff.

Even things as simple as putting your keys in one place, doing your grocery shopping once a month instead of weekly, and finding a better route to work can make your life easier, and give you more time, and energy, to focus on the important things.

1. Relax

Just as it’s important to learn to be calm, it’s important to learn how to relax. If you’re stressed out, your body goes into fight or flight mode. All unnecessary systems start shutting down, including your immune system, which is why you get sick easier when you are stressed out.

Being stressed is also an easy way to kill focus. You’ll be more lethargic, find it harder to concentrate, may have trouble sleeping, and will certainly have a short fuse. None of which is conducive to focusing on anything. Stress can even lead to serious health issues like heart problems and a stroke, so learning to relax helps more than your focus!

Learn meditation, yoga, tai chi or other relaxation techniques, pencil some down time into that hectic schedule, and make some time for you, and you’ll be able to get back to being much more focused when you’ve recharged.

Once you’ve gone through all of these steps, you should be a lean, mean, focused machine, ready to take on the world, tackle anything, and tick tasks off your to do list with lightning speed. And when you’ve reached that stage, there’s absolutely nothing on earth you cannot achieve. So go out there, focus on what you want, and get it.

Religious groups, politicians, and many other groups and parties are clamoring to have a say in the matter. It’s used as a platform for political campaigns, touted as an unpardonable sin, and has been the cause of violent attacks, on clinics, doctors and nurses who work there, and women who visit them. Blood boils when the topic of abortion is raised, with both the pro life and pro choice factions attempting to put their point across, but seldom ever listening to the valid arguments of the other.

Children should be a source of joy, yet the decision whether or not to have them has become a source of pain, hatred and misery. I am sure, whatever higher power is out there, never intended for this to happen, and that the violent outbreaks are a source of anguish.

However, when examining the facts, and while there are valid arguments on the part of pro life campaigners, there are the same on the part of those who are pro choice.

When you get right down to it though, the decision whether or not to become a mother rests with that woman. It is her body that will carry the child, her life that may be endangered if a difficult pregnancy occurs, and her life that will change irrevocably once that child is born, whether she chooses to keep the child, or place it up for adoption.

Here are our top ten objective arguments for pro choice.

10. No One Has the Right to Decide But You

Assuming that you live in country or state that has made elective abortion legal, you, as the potential mother to be, have the sole right to determine whether you wish to keep the fetus that is growing inside of you, or not.

For one of many reasons, whether they be financial, or because you are in a bad relationship, were rape, have a chemical dependency, or a potentially life threatening hereditary disease, or any other reason you may have, you have the right to decide on the future of your body.

Pregnancy is difficult, often dangerous, and certainly not something to be entered into lightly and caring for a child is even more so, on all counts. Making sure you are physically and mentally able to be a mother should be your first priority, rather than the decisions others would like to foist on to you.

Think about it – no one would force you to donate an organ, submit to drug testing, or any other form of invasion of your body, and if they did, it would be illegal. Bottom line? No matter what anyone says, does or threatens, the decision is yours.

9. Every Child Should be Wanted

The truth of the matter is, children who are not wanted, and not put up for adoption, are likely to end up with parents who are disinterested at best, or actively abusive at worst.

Having known people who have been adopted, it’s easy to recognize a common refrain that runs through their laments. Why didn’t they want me? Even the most well adjusted wonder why they were given up, and those that are not end up with lingering mental health disorders, stemming from their abandonment issue. They have trouble forming relationships, and may have behavioral problems as well.

In short, whether they are kept by their natural parents, or given up for adoption, the likelihood is that children who are not wanted and cherished will suffer some form of ill effect.

Interestingly enough, several of the people I have spoken to who are adopted have stated that if they ever had to choose between adoption and abortion, in the event of an unwanted pregnancy, they would choose the latter.

8. There Are Countless Destitute Children Already

It’s a fact that there are already countless thousands, or hundreds of thousands, of homeless, orphaned, or unwanted children in the world.

These children, scattered across the globe, lack proper nutrition, healthcare, education and shelter. They never have the opportunity to truly be children – to play, laugh, and be happy and carefree. Instead, they live in poverty and fear, are abused, and often die before they reach adulthood.

We can argue till the cows come home, but the money spent lobbying against abortion would be better spent helping those children. Think about it – if someone really wants an abortion, they’ll find a way to get one, regardless of what you do or say. Save your money, and save a child who is already suffering.

7. In Some Cases, Abortion is Safer

Not to generalize, but there are circumstances where the mother to be is unable to sustain a pregnancy safely, and would endanger herself, as well as her fetus, if that were to occur.

In such an instance, it makes sense to perform an abortion, saving the woman in question’s life, rather than to risk both her well being, and that of the fetus.

It’s a tough decision in most cases, and often happens to women who would dearly love to have a child, but in this case, common sense should prevail.

6. Legalized Abortions Save Lives

Going back to a point that was made earlier, if a woman is bent on aborting a fetus, whether she goes to a clean, legal, proper medical facility to achieve it, or a back street butcher, she will find a way to do it.

Of course, many women die from backstreet abortions, or contract serious illnesses, or are so scarred for life that they are never able to bear children.

It should be borne in mind that just because a woman chooses to end one pregnancy, does not mean she never intends to have children, and forcing women to seek illegal, unsafe abortions would result in this for many. Of course, you may choose to argue that she deserves what she gets for her sins, however, I could counter with “let he who is without sin cast the first stone.”

5. No Woman Should Be Forced to Mother a Child of Rape

The act of rape, in itself, is violent, abhorrent, and leaves scars for life. A rapist takes from a woman her dignity, and her feeling of security, leaving her forever fearful.

When such an act results in a child, it is not the result of love, or even carelessness, but rather, that act of violence made flesh. If a woman who has been raped is forced to carry her child to term, she will feel that child move inside her, knowing that half of it is composed of her attacker.

If she chooses to keep that child, she will forever be torn between the love of a mother for her child, and the memory of the man who brutalized her, and if the child ever finds out the truth behind their conception, they may well develop self loathing or other mental disorders.

Rape is a crime, and the perpetrators of rape should be punished, however, if women who become pregnant out of rape are forced to carry the child, they are the ones who are punished. That is not fair, in anyone’s book.

4. Chemically Dependent Mothers

More and more, in our messed up, damaged world, women who are drug addicts or alcoholics become pregnant. The fetus she carries inside of her has no chance of being born normal, or of having a normal life.

Oftentimes, these women, by circumstance, are poverty stricken or homeless, living a life of pain, unhappiness, and misery. To bring a child into a situation like that would be cruel and inhuman, and if that child will also bear the burden of physical and mental disabilities, then it should not even be a consideration.

Alcohol abuse and chemical dependence are diseases, and the sufferers are usually unable to stop, even when they are aware they are pregnant. If they do carry to term, their children are born dependent on the substances they use, or have birth defects. People who are chemically dependent are also not in control of their faculties all the time, and may not even have realized that they are pregnant, or even that they had sex, or with who.

In this situation, the only humane thing to do would be to end the child’s suffering before it begins.

3. The World Is Overpopulated

In countries like China, where strict regulations are set on the size of families, and enforced abortions are the norm for those who fail to obey, this has come into effect because the governments of those countries know they lack the resources to cater to a larger population.

The same problem is occurring around the world, where large families typically live in poverty, and borderline starvation, while those who have fewer children enjoy a better quality of life.

Food stores are dwindling, fresh water supplies are less able to cope with demand, and fossil fuels that provide life giving energy are fast dwindling, leading the world for disaster. Humans are breeding themselves out of existence, and unless something is done to slow population growth, we will continue to have more and more poverty, hunger, disease and other symptoms of over population.

By giving people the choice – whether they want to have a child, or have another child, or indeed, have a child right now, we effectively help ease the growth of our population.

2. Contraceptives are not Infallible

It’s often argued that if you don’t want children, you shouldn’t get pregnant in the first place, which is fair enough. However, how many people don’t become pregnant when their condom breaks, or their pill does not work for one reason or another?

Perhaps these people, who are doing their bit to be responsible, simply cannot afford to have a child at that time, or perhaps the woman cannot afford the expense, or time off work, that goes with having a baby. Should they then be forced to have that child, either jeopardizing their own financial futures, careers or other aspects of their lives, or should the woman be forced either to have an illegal backstreet abortion or place the child up for adoption?

While the indiscriminate practice of abortion as a means of birth control is abhorrent, and should be stopped, there are legitimate cases, where through no fault of their own, couples end up having to make this decision. Giving them all the options is only fair.

1. Morality is Relative

As you will notice from all other points on this list, the concept of morality is not a fixed point of view, able to be imposed on one and all, regardless of circumstance or any other factor.

Morality is fluid, and just as an abortion for the sake of abortion is wrong, when used as a remedy to irresponsible behavior, the outlawing of abortion under the right circumstances, and for the right reasons, is also wrong.

If we begin to make decisions for people on issues as private as what to do for their bodies, where does it stop? Do we then begin to advocate forced sterilization for people living with diseases that are hereditary, or who are chemically dependent? Do we begin forced medical screening or other invasions of privacy?

Where do the black and white areas end, and the grey areas begin? How can we justifiably call ourselves free, when government or other groups have the power to decide what we do or don’t do with our bodies?

In most cases, I believe, abortion is not a decision that is arrived at lightly. It is something that is carefully weighed, agonized over, and considered, and as such, it should be respected as the right of the individual. After all, they are the ones who will have to live with their decision, not you.

Bonus

Laren Galloway has a good Scottish surname. His parents are from New Orleans and the fact that they are both African-Americans and have produced a blue-eyed baby is amazing.

However, for one reason or another, be it insanity or anger, greed or negligence, every once in a while, some of us fall foul of the law.

Fortunately, in most countries, the punishment fits the crime, and a petty theft, for example, will not result in a long prison sentence, or, if it’s a first offence, in any sentence at all, while a serious crime, like rape, murder or fraud, may result in longer terms, or even life imprisonment.

Justice varies from country to country, and even within the states or territories of that country and where a crime in one country may result in a more lenient sentence, there are some countries that have a zero tolerance policy, and deliver swift and final sentences, even including execution, for what we would consider a lesser offence.

In the middle east, for example, crimes such as rape, murder and stealing, have penalties that might include castration, death or having a hand cut off, in that order. In Thailand, dealing or transporting narcotics results in lengthy prison terms in very unpleasant jails, or even death, while in many other countries, penalties are more lenient, focusing on rehabilitation rather than retribution.

There have, however, been numerous cases of record breaking jail sentences being handed down, and this article focuses on the top ten. As the saying goes, crime does not pay, and since the criminals listed here had no chance of parole within their lifetimes, or, indeed, for many lifetimes thereafter in some cases, that saying is proved true.

It’s also worth bearing in mind that not all life sentences are created equal. In some countries, life in prison means twenty years, with an opportunity for parole after ten years. In others, like China, life imprisonment means imprisonment until death.

One question that always comes up when discussing inordinately long sentences, is why not just sentence these criminals to death. The answer to that, is that the cost of sentencing someone to death, and the subsequent appeals that opens up, is actually higher to the taxpaying public than keeping them incarcerated for so long is therefore less costly, and an effective method of keeping dangerous criminals off the street.

In cases where sentences numbering thousands of years, or multiple consecutive life sentences, are handed down, the idea is that even if the criminal becomes eligible for parole at sometime, that eligibility would occur well after their natural lives had been spent in prison, and therefore, amounts to a sentence for the rest of their natural lives.

It’s also interesting to note that sentencing, in the United States, for the rest of your natural life, can no longer be appealed – the only way to rescind that type of sentence, is to be pardoned by the president.

Whether for specific crimes, or just for being record breaking sentences, here is our list of the top ten prison sentences.

10. Longest Sentence to a Woman

In the country of New Zealand, life imprisonment is the harshest sentence the courts can hand down, and usually, women are treated more leniently than their male counterparts.

However, in the case of Tracy Goodman, the judge decided that her crime warranted the maximum penalty, the first time that sentence had been given to a woman. Not only that, but the sentence carries a 19 year non parole period. Given that Goodman is 44 years old already, that would put her well into her sixties before she even becomes eligible for parole.

Given the nature of her crime however, stabbing and eighty three year old pensioner, Mona Morriss, to death, before robbing her apartment, one can only hope that even then, she does not receive parole.

9. Longest Serving Political Prisoner

Political prisoners are typically those individuals that defy the government of their home country, or another, for political reasons. Nelson Mandela was a famous political prisoner, serving twenty seven years in South Africa, for his involvement in the ANC.

However, in May this year, Nael Barghouthi, a Palestinian national, will become the longest serving political prisoner ever. Beginning his incarceration on April 4, 1978, Barghouthi has now served more than thirty one years in an Israeli prison. Since he was incarcerated when he was twenty one, he has spent ten years more as a prisoner, than as a free man, and since his prison term is undefined, he has no way of knowing when, if ever, he will be released.

While one can understand the need to protect a country’s political stability, one has to wonder, given the exact nature of the political tensions between Palestine and Israel, whether Bargouthi will ever be released, and whether his incarceration is indeed justified.

8. Longest Time Served

In 1899, Richard Honeck, who murdered Walter F Koeller, was sentenced to life in prison. Unlike modern life terms, that tend to last for twenty five years or less, Honeck spent very close to his entire life in prison.

At the time of his arrest, Honeck, the son of a wealthy farm equipment dealer, working as a telegraph operator, was just 22 years old. He and an accomplice, Herman Hundhausen, had entered Koeller’s room armed with knives, guns and other weapons, and eventually stabbed the man to death with a bowie knife.

Initially, he was remanded to Joliet prison, although he picked up trouble there too, stabbing an assistant warden. His stay in the Menard Penitentiary, Chester, lasted until to December 20, 1963, when Honeck, then 84, was finally paroled, and was uneventful.

He spent the final thirty five years of his sentence peacefully, working in the prison bakery, and during his entire stay, he received one four line note, in 1904, and two visits – one from a friend, also in 1904, and one from a reporter, in the same year as his parole. Seems fitting, considering his crime.

However, his niece took him in following his parole, and the two lived in Oregon, until his death, reported to have been in 1976, when he was aged ninety seven.

7. Burmese Activists Receive Inhuman Sentences

In the nation of Burma, the military government reign supreme. Any who oppose them are treated with single minded brutality. For instance, one 21 year old activist, Bo Min Yu Ko, has been sentenced to 104 years in prison for opposing their views.

The government’s indiscriminate sentencing of opposition to their will does not end there though – they have also sentenced a Kay Ti Aung, to twenty years in prison. She was five months pregnant at the time of the sentencing.

While these sentences don’t come close to matching the top sentences in this article, they are significant because they have been handed out not for crimes, but for opposing reigning political views.

6. Longest Sentences In Georgia

In August of 2006, the longest sentences in the state of Georgia’s history were handed down by Judge Debra Turner, of the Gwinnet County Superior Court.

What makes these sentences all the more interesting is that the two recipients, who have each received seven consecutive life sentences, plus two hundred and sixty five years each, had not committed murder or rape.

Instead, the two, twenty eight year old Ryan Brandt, and twenty five year old Jeffrey Kollie, were convicted of a string of armed robberies. Ironically, they had previously fired an attorney who had arranged a plea bargain of forty years for them.

It would seem that even officials within the justice system are getting tired of crime, and given the high number of people either incarcerated, or on parole or probation, have decided to make an example of those who break the law.

5. Twenty Five Life Sentences

On the fifth of February 1973, in the state of California, a sentence of twenty five consecutive life sentences was handed down to Mexican American, Juan Corona.

The sentence definitely fit the crime, as Corona had been found guilty of murdering twenty five migrant farm workers, who had worked for him. After murdering them, he had buried their remains near Feather River, outside Yuba City, also in California.

Considering that he had taken twenty five lives, in an astonishingly short period between 1970 and 1971, it was fitting that he was sentenced to one life term for each of the lives he had stolen. If only he was able to live long enough to serve them all.

4. Over Two Millennia, For Starters!

Darron Bennalford Anderson, of Oklahoma, was found guilty in 1994, of crimes ranging from rape, to kidnapping, larceny, robbery and kidnapping. His initial sentence was two thousand two hundred years.

Unhappy with the sentence, he chose to appeal the ruling, and when his appeal was decided. However, instead of the result he had hoped for, a reduction in his sentence, he received further sentences, including four thousand years each for sodomy and rape, five hundred years for grand larceny, and one thousand seven hundred and fifty years, and a thousand years respectively for kidnapping and burglary.

In 1997, he once again appealed this sentence, and this time, had some success. The supreme court of appeals ruled that the larceny conviction was double jeopardy, considering that he had been sentenced already for burglary.

Currently, Mr. Anderson is eligible for parole in the year twelve thousand, seven hundred and forty four.

3. Don’t Mess With Iranians

Most people know that in the Middle East, justice is swift, and decisive. None but the very brave, or ignorant, would attempt to commit a serious crime, like rape or murder in an Arab governed country, for fear of death.

However, it turns out that eve n being a conman in Iran is a very dangerous proposition, at least, if you value your freedom that is.

On the fifteenth of June 1969, two conmen found this out to their peril. The judge in their case decided to give them sentences equal to the number of their transgressions. Each ended up with sentences of seven thousand, one hundred and nine years.

The moral of the story? When you’re in Iran, make sure your business dealings are completely, one hundred percent above board, or pay the price!

2. Ten Thousand Years

To date, it remains the longest sentence handed down in the United States.

Dudley Wayne Kyzer, who had brutally murdered his wife, mother in law, and a college student, was sentenced, in 1981in Tuscaloosa, in the state of Alabama, to what remains the longest term in US history.

The judge ruled that because of the brutality of the crimes, he would serve ten thousand years for his wife’s murder, plus an additional life sentences for each of his other crimes.

Kyzer later appealed the sentence, and requested to have it commuted, however, the judge who heard the appeal stated that it was outside his jurisdiction, and that Kyzer should have made the appeal within thirty days of sentencing. His ten thousand year sentence therefore stands.

1. Longest Sentence Ever Demanded

It’s not clear if it was ever handed down, but the top spot on this list has to go for the most excessive, longest sentence ever demanded. Particularly considering the crime.

In Palma de Mallorca, Spain, on March 11, 1972, a twenty two year old man named Gabriel March Grandos went to trial. The crime he was accused of was the failure to deliver some forty two thousand or so letters. As a mailman, this amounted, in the eyes of the government, to fraud.

The sentence requested? Three hundred and eighty four thousand, nine hundred and twelve years.

Without a doubt, delivery of the mail is a very important task, however, one has to wonder whether the sentence requested was not, perhaps, just a little excessive, given the crime!

I am sure, when they invented the nuclear bomb, that the men who did so never intended them to be used. However, the threat of nuclear war has urged many countries to become nuclear capable, meaning the threat really does exist. It is on the whim of the men in charge of those countries that we hang our hopes of avoiding disaster, and those are the very men who have failed us in the past.

The need for money, power and domination drives all the nations of the world, to the point that we’ve lost sight of the fact that if this happens, we all lose. There would be no winner.

While it may come swiftly, if and when it happens, and we may not all have the time to take advantage of any preparations we have made, it does make sense to be ready for that terrible day when it comes.

Here are our top ten tips to help you prepare for the aftermath of a nuclear holocaust.

10. Pay Attention

The very first step in preparing for a nuclear holocaust, is to pay attention to international news and media. While the nuclear holocaust may be swift, when it comes, there will certainly be a lead up to that terrible day.

Bear in mind, the last time the bomb was dropped, in Japan in the 1940’s, ending the second world war, it followed several years of intense fighting in Europe. It was not a spur of the moment decision, but rather a last ditch effort.

Paying attention to news and media should allow you to track the sentiment and scale of any wars, and as we draw nearer to the point where either of the parties are desperate enough to attempt to end the battle by nuclear force, it should become clear.

9. Look to Space

Space may have been the final frontier, but that’s fast becoming history.

Several wealthy individuals have become space tourists, booking a once in a lifetime trip into space in a shuttle, and spending time on space stations. Of course, that’s still small scale, but NASA has confirmed that the long term goal of space programs is to colonized space.

Then consider that Sir Richard Branson, British billionaire, owner of the Virgin empire, and adventure junkie, has teamed up with an American designer of space craft, to form Virgin Galactic, whose ultimate goal is to make travel to space accessible to most, but designing their own cost effective space craft.

So it seems, whether as a part of a governmental program, or under your own steam, space travel is a possibility, and if you can book your seat before nuclear war breaks out, you may not be on the planet when disaster happens!

8. Get the Hell Out of Dodge

If and when nuclear war happens, the missiles used will be guided to land, and detonate, with pinpoint accuracy. That also means that they won’t be launched indiscriminately, but rather, targeted at the biggest cities, the most strategic military locations and similar areas.

Making sure you are as far as possible from “ground zero” when that happens increases your chance of surviving the holocaust exponentially. In fact, if you’re far enough from the blast area, hiding in your basement, or even in your car, could be enough to let you survive the blast, which will be very swift, very hot and very deadly.

Although you could rely on your powers of observation as stated in point number 10, and then make a run for it, it’s been estimated that with submarine missile delivery systems, it would now take only six minutes for warheads to reach their targets. So if you’ve prepared a safe haven, and are relying on your powers of perception to warn you in time, so you can make your escape from the big city, you might be in store for a nasty surprise.

If your perception fails you, or there is, for some reason, no warning, you would be toast.

7. Build a Bunker

OK. It may be a little nihilistic to build a bunker, and your friends may very well laugh at you if you did. However, if the need for a fallout shelter ever arose, you can bet your bottom dollar you’d suddenly become very popular with those very same friends!

Fallout shelters can be built out of various materials – depending on what you have on hand, from steel to brick, packed earth to underwater structures!

Thicknesses recommended for walls and floors vary greatly though with steel being 5 inches, brick 16 inches, packed earth 2 feet, and water three, although of course, packed earth is the cheapest, and most readily available.

Of course, there’s no guarantee that your bunker will save you, but then again, I’d rather have some chance than none at all…

6. Arm Yourself

It’s an unfortunate fact of human existence that when disaster strikes, we all go a little crazy. There will be looters, robbers, and ordinary people, mad with fear, willing to do anything to protect themselves and possibly their families.

Unfortunately, if you are prepared for the survival of yourself, and your family, you may not be able to help anyone else, and you will need to protect your shelter, stores and family from potential attack by those who are desperate enough to do so.

Chances are, even if the bomb does drop, that there will be police stations, gun shops and other areas where you can obtain weapons and ammunition afterwards, when everyone has deserted them. Of course, having a few weapons to get started will make getting from your bunker to the gun shop a lot less risky, so make sure you equip your bunker with a few weapons of your choice.

5. Get the Right Gear

If the world ends, the last thing on anyone’s mind is going to be fashion. Your clothes and other gear will need to be practical, durable, and comfortable. Not only that, but central heating and airconditioning will be a thing of the past, so you’ll need to make provision for surviving in extreme heat, or extreme cold.

A trip to a hunting, fishing or camping store, or even your local army surplus, should give you a good choice of options, and from there, you can stock your bunker with boots, coats, trousers and other necessary items.

Blankets, rain coats and other weather specific items will also need to be stocked up on, as would serviceable, practical furniture for your fallout shelter. You’ll need somewhere to sleep, sit, cook, wash and so on, so consider those requirements too.

4. Stock Up On Provisions

Another thing that you’re going to have to do if you plan to survive a nuclear holocaust is to stock up on provisions. From food, to water, to toilet paper, you’re going to need everything, and lots of it!

Remember that even supplies that survive the blast of a nuclear warhead may well be contaminated with radioactive fallout, which means you won’t be able to trust anything you find outside your fallout shelter.

Canned goods, bottled water and other non perishable provisions will be what keeps you alive after a nuclear holocaust. Of course, investing in a Geiger counter would mean that you could scavenge after a blast, and find non contaminated goods. That way, you’d be able to replenish your supplies from time to time.

Then again, if you have a dog, keeping them after the holocaust may be a priority for you, either as a companion, a protector, or a beloved family pet. Remember that they would also need to eat, so you would need to stock up for them too.

Each and every member of your family, including any animals, would need to be provisioned, with food, water and other necessary supplies, so make sure you account for them in your provisioning forays.

3. Prepare for Medical Emergencies

Once the world have effectively ended, following a nuclear holocaust, there will be no more doctors, dentists or emergency rooms.

You’re going to be flying solo, so stocking up on medical supplies, from bandages to disinfectants, and drugs, is going to be critical to your survival. Then again, if you have no knowledge of first aid whatsoever, buying a few first aid and other medical books will go a long way to ensuring you don’t make things worse!

2. All the Other Supplies

Imagine you could never, ever, go to a grocery store again. That’s pretty much what would happen if the world experienced all out nuclear war. You would have to be entirely self sufficient in order to survive.

For power, you would need to buy a generator, and stock up on fuel, or have a lot of batteries. You would need some form of entertainment, and since there would be no TV or internet, you’d probably have to read, so stocking up on books and magazines would be a good idea.

You would need bedding, clothing and utensils, pots and pans, toiletries and toilet paper. Fresh water that was uncontaminated would be in short supply, so you’d need lots of bottles of water stored.

Ideally, a means to grow your own food would be great, if you could achieve it inside your fallout shelter, and since UV light could be used for this, if you have a generator, and a lot of fuel, it may be worth while to stock up on seeds.

Essentially, your survival after nuclear war will depend on your preparation for the months and years that follow, or at least until you could find your way to an uncontaminated area.

1. Have a Plan

There’s a saying that goes: “Those who fail to plan, plan to fail.” When it comes to post nuclear holocaust survival, that will be especially true. You will need to have carefully laid plans to cover every eventuality, since there would be no back up, and no one to turn to, at least not in terms of government or leadership.

This list only scratches the surface of the things you will need to consider if you plan to survive a nuclear holocaust, and the aftermath, so if you are genuine about doing that, you’ll probably need to spend a lot more time thinking about it.

When it comes right down to it, you will need to plan for all of you, and your family’s needs, for several years after the event, as there’s no telling if, or when, help would come. It’s a bleak and unpleasant thought, and one that could be prevented if only governments could be convinced to give up their nuclear armaments.

Of course, that, as with most things between international power players, is unlikely to happen, as each government ideally wants everyone else to get rid of their warheads, while retaining their own. We should all realize that that is never going to happen. The only way to effectively eliminate the threat of nuclear war is to remove all warheads from the picture, whether owned by a large or a small country.

Bear in mind that no nation wishes to be threatened by those that have nuclear capabilities, so the only way to level the playing field is either to arm everyone, or disarm everyone. I know which option I’d choose.

Of course, that’s pretty respectable, if not ideal, and most of us bid our final farewells with a few things still on our to do list, and quite a few more that we’ve done, either intentionally or not.

The saying “life’s too short” sums it up nicely. In fact, whether we lived a hundred years, or even two hundred, life would still be too short to learn everything, achieve everything and do everything we’d like to do. Humans aspire to learn, to experience and to know, and it’s because of this that we’re usually so selective of how we spend our time – anything not worth the time and effort usually makes a swift exit from out to do list, to be replaced with something that better serves our purpose in life.

It’s this quest for knowledge that helped us get to the top of the food chain, and stay there. Sure, there are Galapagos tortoises that live to 177, but I’ve never seen them do a quadratic equation, or learn to drive. So there you have it. Humans spend the relatively short term they’re given on earth gaining and applying knowledge, aspiring to new heights and building complex social networks.

There are some animals though, that don’t have that luxury. Whose life spans are so curtailed by nature that they hardly have a chance to do anything? One common thread that runs through the issue of life expectancy is that the smaller an animal is, the shorter it’s life it likely to be, interestingly enough, which is why all the animals you’ll find on this list are a lot smaller than humans!

Here are the ten shortest lived animals, and the life spans they expect.

10. The Rabbit

• Life Expectancy:  5 years

Beloved pets of children the world over, the domestic rabbit does not, unfortunately, enjoy a long life. In fact, with the longest living tipping the scales at around five years, their lives are quite short indeed.

Rabbits have compensated for this short lifespan, like their other short lived compatriots, by becoming prolific breeders. The saying “breeding like rabbits” is certainly true, and in some parts of the world, like Australia, where they were introduced artificially, and have no natural predators, they have become a plague, breeding unchecked. Of course, Australians tried to counteract this, and other plagues, by introducing other predatory animals, like the cat, which only resulted in the uncontrolled breeding of the cat, and a resulting plague of cats.

But the common domestic rabbit or bunny is certainly a favorite of children, in real life and in stories, with classics such as Beatrix Potter’s tales immortalizing the rabbit, and movies and books like Watership down doing much to grow this cuddly creature’s reputation.

9. Hamsters and Guinea Pigs

• Life Expectancy:  4 years

Those favorite elementery school pets, hamsters, and their larger cousins, guinea pigs, come in at a joint nineth place on the list, with life expectencies of between two and four years.

Hamsters, typically Syrian hamsters, the most common variety kept as pets, begin reproducing young, at around a month or two. From there, they can continue to breed, several times a year, bearing litters of multiple young.

These cute and cuddly little creatures are probably best known for their ability to store food in the pockets in their cheeks, and for their love of running on the hamster wheel. Anyone unlucky enough to have borne their ire will attest that their bite is another characteristic, being remarkably strong for such a small animal.

The guinea pig or Cavy looks a lot like an overgrown hamster, and although they aren’t a fan of the wheel, they do make a distinctive whistling sound when excited or alarmed.

8. The House Mouse

• Life Expectancy:  1 - 3 years avg

Such a small creature, yet the bane of many a homeowner around the world. These little creatures have prompted humans to have cats as pets, and sparked invention by the creators of the mousetrap. They’re notoriously difficult to find and remove once they’ve entrenched themselves in a home, and are prolific breeders.

Tiny as they are, they strike fear into the hearts of many, and can jump, climb, run, and even swim, remarkably well given their size. Interestingly enough, house mice do not see in color, although their hearing far outstrips humans, being able to hear even ultrasound waves!

Adult females can breed every fifteen to twenty one days, come into estrus as soon as they are exposed to male urine, and can bear 5 to 10 young per litter, which may explain their phenomenal success as a species!

In spite of this, they are a favorite snack to many predators in the wild, and exterminated by humans as vermin, meaning their life cycle is in the region of one to three years.

7. Mosquito Fish

• Life Expectancy:  2 years

This little fish, also known as Gambusia, hail from the Gulf of Mexico, where they live out their short lives, of around two years.

What really makes them interesting is that even though they are so short lived, they manage to break many conventions during that time. For one thing, they are very hardy for their size. They can survive in very saline waters, where other fish would not, and for short periods of time, in water that is up to forty two degrees Celsius.

The female mosquito fish, unlike most mammalian females, is larger than the male, reaching a maximum length of around seven centimeters to the male’s four. They also, like guppies, and a few other fish species, bear live young. This results in a higher life expectancy for those young, meaning they are quite prolific.

Given that they also breed three or four times in a season, bearing young numbering between 50 and 100 each time, this is one little fish that seems determined to endure.

6. Brine Shrimp, Opossums and Chameleons

• Life Expectancy:  ~1 years

An odd combination to be sure, but they share one common trait – each has a lifespan of only a year.

The first, the brine shrimp, is a type of crustacean, found only in salt water lakes. These poor little relatives of the crab and lobster have only one year on earth. They are, like many of their short lived compatriots, prolific procreators, but of course, when you’re tiny, tasty, and short lived, that’s essential to the survival of your species!

Usually, the shortest life spans are the preserve of insects and simpler animals, however, researchers have also found a species of chameleon, those color changing reptiles, known as Labord’s chameleon, in Madagascar, the large Indian Ocean island off the coast of Africa, that share a similar life cycle. These creatures hatch in November each year, just before the onset of the rainy season, mature rapidly and mate by January or February of the following year.

Before the next generation of chameleons emerges from their eggs to begin the annual cycle again, the entire adult population dies.

Last on the list, and rare at this extreme lower end of the life span scale, is a mammal – the North American opossum.

This little creature, native to American, is a small, around cat sized animal, with an almost white furred face, a rat like prehensile tail, which allows young opossums to hang upside down, and grey fur on its body. It’s an odd looking creature, with even stranger habits, and it’s one of the shortest lived mammals on the planet.

Another unique feature of this little critter is that, like humans, it has an opposable “thumb” on it’s hind feet, making it an excellent grasper. Of course, since it also has the lowest brain to body weight ratio of mammals, it’s unlikely to challenge the human position of dominance over other animals any time soon.

While it’s true that the maximum life span of this creature can run to four years, so many of them die in their first year of life that it’s fair to say that the average life expectancy is around a year.

5. Dragonfly

• Life Expectancy:  4 Months

Like miniature helicopters, these often beautiful insects hover over ponds in summer, the sun glinting off their metallic carapaces as they live out their short lives, going about the business of eating and breeding.

And short those lives are. Although some species may remain in the pupal stage for up to five years, awaiting the perfect conditions to break free, and begin their lives, their actual time on earth, alive, and interacting with the world around them is limited to around four months.

So next time you see a hovering dragonfly, make a point of appreciating it’s beauty. It took a long time to hatch, and before the season turns, it will be gone.

4. Houseflies and Bees

• Life Expectancy:  4 Weeks

Tied for fourth place, are two of the most common insects in the world. Both the ordinary housefly and the worker bee live around four or five weeks in total. These winged creatures live incredibly short, but immensely busy lives.

Consider that house fly eggs can turn into larvae, or maggots, within as little as twenty four hours, and that those larvae become flies in a few days more, then it’s on to take up the family business – eating and breeding.

And while the housefly’s sole purpose in life seems to be to irritate humans, while feeding and breeding, the poor worker bees, all female, spend their extra short life doing exactly what their name implies: working for the good of the hive.

If that wasn’t bad enough, if they do their hively duty, and deter attackers by stinging them, they cut their already short lifespan down, since they die when the stinger is ripped free. No wonder we have killer bees. They’re probably just mad at how unfair life is!

3. Drone Ants

• Life Expectancy:  3 Weeks

Unlike their working female compatriots, the male ant or drone, lives a life of luxury, albeit it briefly.

From the moment they hatch, their sole purpose in life is to eat, and breed. Usually hatched around the same time as the breeding females, they take flight when the reproductive season begins, along with their male and female breeding counterparts, only to mate in flight.

While the female breeding ants then go on to seek out a suitable location to establish a colony, and do just that, the drone, life’s work completed, expires. From start to finish, the poor old drone ant has only a few weeks on earth.

It’s seems the trade off for the drone’s life of lazy luxury is to die young, although, during that time, they are spared the hardship of work. Somehow, that does not seem like a good deal to me.

2. Gastrotrichs

• Life Expectancy:  3 Days

The gastrotrich is actually a type of animal: marine or fresh water micro organisms, with a maximum size of just three millimeters. There are many different types, but all live incredibly short lives.

Their lives are uneventful too, spent floating among the sediment in their watery home, occasionally attaching themselves to a surface for a while, before loosening themselves once more to drift on the currents, eating, and little else.

In spite of this laid back, relaxed attitude to existence, these little creatures typically have a lifespan of on average, only three days.

1. Mayflies

• Life Expectancy:  1 - 24 Hours

Despite being prolific, with over two and a half thousand known species scattered across the globe, the Mayfly depends on quantity, rather than quality of life for their survival on earth.

These aquatic insects have the shortest lifespan known, with their life expectancy ranging from just a half an hour to one day, depending on their species. In fact, their sole purpose in life is to hatch, and reproduce.

Think about that the next time you lament the brevity of life! It could be far, far worse. In fact, if you were a Mayfly, you might not even have made it through this article before you shuffled off your mortal coil.

To this day, music, song, and certain noises have the power to elevate mood, bring back memories, whether happy or sad, evoke joy or fear, and alter out emotional state in many other ways. For instance, what would a horror movie be without the slow, ominous beat, building to a crescendo, or the scream of the hero as they are caught unawares by whatever it is that goes bump in the night?

What else but a favorite golden oldie, on your car radio as you edge your way homewards from a hard day’s work, would have the power to bring a smile to your face?

We humans are so enamored with sound, in fact, that we have developed our complex speech patterns from it, eschewing the largely body language communication of most other mammals in favor of the spoken word. We’ve created several complex, highly specific tongues, all of which we feel immense pride and an almost patriotic sensibility toward.

We use our speech to create works of art, in the form of plays, and books. Armed with the tool of speech, we venture into the world, using it to make friends, learn, and find love. Speech is, in fact, the single most important thing that sets us apart from lower animals, and we should appreciate all that it’s done for us.

But aside from speech, what are the most appealing sounds?

Because of the emotive aspect to sound, each human will experience them slightly differently, and may have a slightly different list of favorites, but we’re sure you’ll find at least one or two of your favorites on our list of the top ten most appealing noises, which we bring to you, as usual, in no particular order.

10. Rain on a Tin Roof

Enjoyed while tucked under the covers, or in front of the fireplace with a loved one, there’s not much to beat the rhythmic tap tapping of rain on a metal roof. If you round out your experience with a cup of cocoa, while you snuggle, warm and dry and listen to that hypnotic sound, you’ve got a recipe for the perfect winter’s evening in.

Of course, it doesn’t only rain at night, but who could argue with the enjoyment derived from sitting, warm and toasty in bed on a rainy day, reading a favorite book? Sheer bliss, and all the more so thanks to the rain on a tin roof.

If you don’t have a tin roof, don’t despair! The sound of rain, driven by the wind, lashing on a window, has about the same effect. So next time the weather turns, draw your quilt nearer, and make yourself a steaming cup of cocoa, and settle down to listen to one of the very best sounds you’ll hear for a long time to come.

9. A Babys First Cry

This one is for the parents out there. After nine long months of anticipation, preparation and anxiety, which often endures right up to the last moment, there’s nothing better than hearing the first cry of your newborn infant. It may be thin, plaintiff, or full force, but that first cry, whatever it sounds like, is surely the one that cements the relationship between parent and child.

In fact, it’s enough to diffuse any amount of tension in a delivery room, that first plaintiff wail that proclaims to the world that your little bundle of joy, who you’ve worked so hard to bring to life, is going to be just fine.

This is especially memorable for those mothers who have had a difficult pregnancy or delivery, or if dad or other family members spends the delivery in the corridor instead of the delivery room, and while there will be many cries after, that first one is the one that will bring the biggest tears of joy to your eyes.

8. The Snuffling of a Puppy or the Purr of a Kitten

You’d have to be a very hard person indeed not to be moved by the snuffle a puppy emits when brought close to your ear, when they are still tiny enough to fit in one hand, and before their eyes even open to the world.

Holding a warm, wriggling bundle to your ear and hearing that slightly wet, sometimes wheezy sniff and snuffle a puppy produces is enough, usually, to bring a smile to anyone’s face, and even to cause the hairs on your arms and neck to stand up. It may even result in a giggle of delight. Regardless of what those puppies may one day grow into, that moment, when they are tiny and helpless, snuffling in your ear, is probably one of life’s best.

Kittens, on the other hand, seem to purr from almost the moment they’re born. It’s often surprising that such a powerful and deep rumble can come from such a small and fragile body, but holding a kitten, stroking it, and hearing that sound is surely another of life’s special moments. And the good thing is, if it’s your cat, you’ll hear that rasp of a purr for years to come too.

7. The Final Bell of School

If you are a child of school going age, or a grown up, you’ll know the immense anticipation that mounts during the school day, as the final bell approaches. By the time you reach your final period, the day seems interminably long, and you are almost sure that sound will never come.

As slow minutes tick by, however, and you edge ever nearer to that beautiful sound, the anticipation mounts once more, reaching fever pitch, and when you finally do hear that electronic peal, it’s as if the shackles have been removed. Freedom awaits once more!

Of course, if it’s the last day of school before the summer holiday, the wait seems even more interminable, and the ecstasy when that sound eventually comes that much more intense. Almost makes you wish for school again, doesn’t it?

6. The Tinkle of Change

There are no sounds that are quite like it. The musical tinkle of small change as it tinkles in your pocket. That reassuring sound of money in a money box when you were growing up, or better yet, that same tinkle, combined with the bells and whistles that indicate a win on a slot machine when gambling.

The more noise that money makes, the happier we seem to be, and there’s certainly no mistaking it. Maybe it’s because the more noise it makes, the more there’s likely to be, and while it can’t buy love, in the words of the immortal Beetles, it certainly brings security.

As long as there’s a tinkle of change in pocket, the world looks a little rosier, life a little easier to handle, and the future a little brighter.

5. The Crunch of Gravel

For centuries, driveways have been covered with gravel, and personally, I think the practice endures to this day, despite the introduction of more modern materials, in so many homes, because of the unique sound it produces.

When awaiting guests, there’s no sound better than the much anticipated crunch on gravel, enough to send kids and adults alike squealing and running to meet their long awaited visitors. Or what about the unanticipated visits, when someone arrives unexpectedly, with that telltale crunch.

Like most of the others on this list, it’s a unique noise, that would not be confused with any other, but that affects us all almost the same.

4. Ice in a Glass

Another unmistakable sound, the tune of ice cubes floating in a glass, or the fizz and crack as they meet a beverage as it’s poured in.

There’s little that evokes such a feeling of cool, even on the hottest day, as that musical melody that ice makes in a glass as it melts all to rapidly in the heat of the sun. In fact, just hearing that clink as the ice bobs on the surface in a glass can bring to mind the image of a frosted glass, filled with a long, cool draught.

Maybe it’s because of the transience of the ice, or maybe just because we know the beverage will cool us, and slake our thirst that much better because of those little irregular cubes, but it’s definitely right up there on the list of appealing sounds, for me at least.

3. Waves Crashing on Shore

The sound of waves crashing on a shore will forever evoke memories of happy family holidays by the sea, lulled to sleep gently as the eternal sea pounds the sand or rock rhythmically.

Maybe it’s the feeling of permanence that the sea evokes in an uncertain world, or simply the hypnotic regularity of the noise, but in spite of the fact that we know the sea can be destructive, that noise is one of the most peace invoking around.

Even when the sea is rough, crashing like thunder on a rocky shore, as long as you and your family are safe and warm, you will tend to feel a sense of cozy peace, knowing that today, tomorrow, and for the rest of eternity, those waves are going to be pounding that shore, at regular intervals. It’s a reminder of the permanence of the world.

Of course, this sound is best enjoyed on an isolated stretch of coast, where the human noise and hum of traffic won’t detract from its power to instill peace, but wherever you can get it, take it. It’s an enduring sound, which will stay with you.

Maybe that’s why people are so fascinated by the sound of the sea in seashells? An opportunity to take a little bit of that feeling home with them perhaps?

2. A Crackling Fire

Here’s another one that depends largely on the weather! There’s no denying, that the crackle or roar of a fire, whether in a hearth, a campsite, or as a bonfire on the beach on a cool evening, has the power to affect the soul.

The appeal of the sound is almost directly proportionate to the chill in the air, and maybe it’s also got something to do with our ancient ancestors, after all, the discovery of fire was a turning point in our evolution!

That familiar crackle means warmth, heat, and possibly a hot meal to many of us, and we instinctively gravitate towards the crack and pop it emits as is burns, hissing as steam from hidden sap escapes, the dancing flames throwing patterns on our faces.

Maybe that’s why camping is so much fun? It can’t be the prospect of the hard ground or all the bugs, that’s for sure!

1. Your Own Name

Scientists have actually proven this one. The most appealing sound to human ears is the sound of your own name.

Perhaps it’s because it’s your unique identifier, or maybe it’s because of the social nature of people, but the sound of our names, whispered, shouted in excitement or joy, or spoken gently, has a profound impact on us.

Imagine, for example, that you were stranded, as some have been, on an isolated island, with no other human company. All of a sudden, the prospect of hearing your name spoken in a voice other than your own takes on a whole new depth of meaning, doesn’t it?

Because of the power of the name, it’s a common practice for sales and business people to create systems by which to remember names. The name of their client becomes a key, with which they unlock the potential for business.

Over the years, there have been countless books written on relationship development and improvement. Many of those authors have touched on the subject of injecting soul into a relationship, but that’s a tricky thing indeed.

After all, what is the soul? How does it differ from the mind, or indeed the heart? Some might say the soul is that indefinable something that makes you who you are.

Having a soulful relationship, therefore, would mean having a relationship where you, and your partner, are free to be yourself, without fear of recrimination, or judgment, and to have your partner do the same. It would also mean feeding your soul, by doing the things you love, either as a couple, or on your own.

Easier said than done in this modern world, where divorce is no longer a scandal and multiple marriages are the order of the day. So just how can you inject a little soul into your relationship, feed your soul, stay happy, and committed? We don’t claim to have all the answers, but here are a few ideas from the experts.

10. Love Unconditionally

This is the basis on which any soulful relationship is built. Unfortunately, it’s also the most difficult to achieve.

While in theory, maintaining love for your partner regardless of what happens in your life, what they do, say or omit, should be possible, after all, we have that kind of love for our children, don’t we? However, the reality is that a marriage or relationship is a partnership, and when something happens that unbalances this partnership, whether it’s a job loss by one partner, and affair, or an accident that leaves them disabled, all too often, we simply cannot continue to love as we had before.

What we can do, however, is attempt to love unconditionally. Everyone has their deal breakers, and no one is saying you should forgive everything. There are some things that are just unforgiveable, and will stay that way, but if you examine every event, occurrence, statement or issue with a more careful eye, you may find that they are not worth the amount of fighting, arguing or effort you put into them.

If it’s not something you know will still be bothering you a year, or five, or ten years down the line, or if it’s something that was no one’s fault, like a job loss, or accident, consider letting it go. You’ll feel much, much better than you would had you fought about it.

9. Know Yourself

How can we ever expect to truly connect with another human being, if we have never truly connected with ourselves?

If you really want to connect with your partner, and enjoy a soulful and happy relationship, you first need to make sure you know yourself. What do you believe? What is most important to you – money, family, career, or something else? What is your greatest goal in life? What makes you angry, sad or happy? Until you can answer the important what’s and what if’s about yourself, you will always find it difficult to truly connect.

Figure out who you are, how and why you react as you do to the situations that occur in your life, and what you really want, and it will be easier to let your partner know, and figure out what they want. Otherwise, instead of togetherness, you might end up with two lives lived in parallel, never truly meeting – a recipe for disaster.

8. Give, and Take, a Little Space

There’s an old saying – absence makes the heart grow fonder. That saying is as true today as when it was first coined.

Too much togetherness can kill a relationship as quickly as too little, so make sure you cultivate your own interests, friends, and social life, and take time, just for you, every once in a while to enjoy them, while allowing your partner the same.

By doing the things you love, you feed your soul, and in doing so, and allowing your partner to do the same, you will bring more soul into your partnership. Whatever you do though, whether it’s listen to music, play a sport, go shopping with the girls or anything else, make sure it’s something that your partner would approve of.

7. Care

Ever heard the saying it’s the little things that count? That’s where caring comes in. If your partner is sick, take them tea or soup in bed. When they’re worried or tense, give them a massage.

All too often, we think love needs to be a big, showy expensive performance, when the truth is, a little caring, combined with the knowledge that you’re thinking about them, are concerned about their happiness and well being, and want to do everything you can to help, makes all the difference.

It could be something as simple as picking up the dry cleaning if you know they have to work late, but showing you care is guaranteed to bring the soul back into your relationship. Make a point to be considerate and caring, and see how it works for you!

6. Respect

R.E.S.P.E.C.T. Aretha Franklin sang about it, we all pay it lip service, but how many of us really make sure we pay the important people in our lives respect?

Honesty and respect go hand in hand, so lying automatically cancels out respect, no matter how polite and considerate you may be, so remember that when you’re making an effort to respect your partner. Make a point of treating them exactly as you would like them to treat you, and you should find that you have a trouble free, soulful relationship.

When in doubt, remember what the bible has to say: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” While you’re at it, why not apply that principle to everyone you meet? Treating people with respect is the very best way to earn respect, and you’ll be a lot happier all round if you have less conflict in your life.

5. Forgive

The fact is, when someone does something bad, hurtful or inconsiderate to you, you have two choices. You could choose to bear a grudge, allowing the sin they committed to fester in your heart and mind, poisoning you against them, and the rest of the world, for the rest of your life.

Or, you could choose to forgive them for their human foible, and move on with your life. Clearly the former is the far more destructive option, since, instead of putting their crime behind you, you begin to focus all your attention on it, to the exclusion of everything else. The result? They may blithely move on with their lives, while you live in abject misery.

Of course, in a relationship, when the misdeed is serious, like adultery, it’s impossible to simply walk away, and let them get away with it. If you don’t receive a sincere apology, and you feel the deed warrants it, you could always approach the courts for justice. But don’t let the deed, word or other crime of another ruin, or rule your life. If you do, you remain the loser forever.

If you have hurt your partner, by accident or knowingly, the only thing to do, is to sincerely ask for their forgiveness, and own up to your misdeed. Remember – small lies lead to bigger ones, until it will seem that your life is one big lie, and you are lost. Better to bear the brunt of their anger than the guilt.

4. Encourage

If you think about it, why do humans form relationships? To have a companion, someone to share their hopes, dreams, problems and joys with. A partner. The word says it all.

What better way for you and your partner to enjoy a more soulful relationship than by encouraging each other to achieve your goals and dreams. However, that encouragement should not mean that you fix everything for your loved one. As much as anything else, they should have the pride that comes from standing on their own two feet, and if you fix everything for them that would never happen.

Rather than being a substitute parent, focus on being a cheerleader, boosting their confidence, and convincing them that anything they put their minds to is possible, and remember, there’s nothing ,more demoralizing than being told by someone you love that your most dearly held hopes and dreams are out of your reach.

If your beloved does have some dreams that are, to your mind, a little ambitious, encourage them, and help them see that even the biggest hopes and dreams are achieved one small step at a time.

3. Communicate

Usually the number one rule in relationships, it’s pretty high on our list too. For a relationship to be soulful, you need to communicate with your partner.

And we’re not talking non committal grunts, or monosyllabic replies over the breakfast table here. You need to share your hopes, dreams and fears. If something in your relationship is making you unhappy or mad, get it out in the open. Never miss an opportunity to share your feelings, but remember to do so with respect, and taking into account that people are entitled to a difference of opinion.

If you’re not comfortable communicating on your own, face to face, or need some help getting started, consider seeing a couples counselor, or write each other notes. As long as your thoughts are heard, you’re making progress.

2. Enjoy

Too often we’re caught up in daily life’s minutiae, and we forget that we’re supposed to enjoy being together. The easiest way to do that is to share things you both love. Cook a great meal, or go to a restaurant you both love. Take a short trip together, even if it’s only to a neighboring town. Walk on the beach, go dancing, or watch a movie together, curled up on the couch.

Whatever you have in common is what brought you together in the first place, so make sure you make time for it, no matter what your schedule looks like. Or you could find something new that you love to do together. There are probably many things on both your lists of things to do in this life. Why not compare lists, and pick a few to try right now? Eventually, whether it’s bungee jumping together, or enjoying a specific cuisine, you’ll find something that brings both of you joy, that you can share with each other.

Joy is a rare thing in our hard, fast paced modern world, and when we can get it, we should grab it with both hands. What better way to find it, and keep it in our lives, than to rediscover all the things we love to do together, and them actually doing them?

1. Learn

Remember the first few weeks or months of your relationship? The delight you took in learning about your partner, their hopes, dreams, fears and passions? The wonder of uncovering the secrets of their personality, along with a hefty dose of biochemical’s, were what gave you that tingly feeling, that wondrous giddiness that comes with new love.

So, it’s been ten, or twenty years. Do you really think there’s nothing new to learn about your partner? Do you really think they haven’t changed, even a little, in those years? Make the effort to learn about your partner all the time – you might be surprised what you find.

Then again, you could make learning something new something that brings you closer together. Maybe you’ve always wanted to do something. Make it a couple project. Sign up for classes, and then go. Together. If nothing else, it will give you something to talk to each other about, and usually, once you start talking, it’s easy to carry on.

Make it a point, today, to find out something new about your partner. Ask them a question. Listen to the answer. Take note. Eventually, you may remember what it was that gave you those butterflies!

Tales of injustice, triumphs, scandals and lies, all of them have captured the collective imagination, and we’ve followed them avidly in the media. Whether in sports, politics, war or peace, these are the stories that have shaped the world we live in today, and, like it or not, what makes us who and what we are.

Note: Pay less attention to the order of items.

20. 911

No one in New York, America, or indeed the world, will forget the day the twin towers tumbled to the floor, taking the lives of thousands, changing the New York City skyline forever, and leaving a scar on the psyche of the American public.

The attacks, allegedly by Middle Eastern terrorist groups, not only caused the twin towers to collapse, when they were struck by airplanes, but also took out a third building.

The events of September 11, 2001, changed not only the lives of the American people, but those of people the world over, with the US war on terror bringing with it thousands more fatalities, sweeping change to US security and foreign policy, and shattering the long held belief that the US was unassailable. And if the US can be targeted, so too can the rest of the world.

Indeed, since the events of September 11, ordinary citizens the world over are a little more fearful, sleep a little less easy, and worry a little more about the possibility of global war.

19. Hurricane Katrina

When Katrina swept through the American south in 2005, laying waste to New Orleans, devastating the Alabama and Mississippi coastlines, it was probably the most devastating storm in modern history.

Over one thousand seven hundred people died, and houses, businesses, national landmarks and scores of other buildings were destroyed. In fact, the rebuilding effort is still underway, four years on, with Hollywood stars like Brad Pitt throwing their weight behind the rejuvenation following this catastrophe.

18. The Death of Princess Diana

Known as the people’s princess, Diana, princess of Wales, nonetheless had a difficult life, which culminated in tragedy.

After marrying British heir to the crown, Prince Charles in 1980, Diana struggled through years of adultery and unhappiness. Discovering early on in her marriage that her husband was still in love with his former girlfriend, Camilla Parker Bowles, now his wife, she endured numerous scandals, linking her, among others, to James Hewitt, and officer, and Will Carling, a British rugby player. Through it all, she was a devoted mother to her two boys, William and Harry, and gave ceaselessly of her time to charities around the world.

In spite of it all, she remained the queen of the public’s hearts, and when she and her lover, Dodi Al Fayed, heir to the Harrods empire, were killed in a car accident in Paris in 1997, allegedly after a chase by paparazzi, the world went into mourning.

Even more tragic was the fact that for the first time in a life filled with sadness, or certainly for many years, the princess had seemed happy with her new beau.

17. The 2004 Tsunami

No one could have predicted that in 2004, on the 26^{th of December, just a day after Christmas, an undersea earthquake would trigger a tsunami the likes of which we have not seen, nor, hopefully, will see again soon, in the Indian Ocean.} Holiday makers in Thailand and surrounding countries and islands were caught completely unawares by this giant wave, leading to a death toll of over two hundred thousand, and costing international aid agencies over $6 billion.

Government authorities in the area have since installed seismic equipment to provide early warning of any future events, however, that’s little comfort to the families, around the world, of those who lost their lives that day.

16. Los Angeles Riots and Rodney King Beating

Decades after equality for all was established in the US, the 1991 beating of Rodney King, a parolee who had kept driving when requested to pull over, shocked the world, and highlighted the festering racism problem lying just under the surface of America’s beloved democracy.

In the video of the event, four white police officers were clearly seen to brutally beat and kick the helpless King. When they were acquitted despite this overwhelming evidence, it caused a race related riot, which left fifty people dead.

15. The Explosion of Challenger

Ever since the 1960’s, NASA had been on a mission to complete a number of firsts in the space race. The launch of challenger was no different, with the goal of making Christa McAuliff the first teacher in space. That dream was shattered just seventy three seconds after the launch, when the shuttle carrying her, and six others, towards space, exploded.

In 2003, the explosion of Columbia, which also killed all seven aboard, echoed the earlier disaster, once again highlighting the fallibility of the space program.

14.Monica Seles Stabbed in Action

The world looked on in horror in 1993, when top tennis player Monica Seles was stabbed, on court, during a match, by a fanatical fan of her rival, Steffi Graf.

Seles went on to recover, and enjoy a successful career, but this event proved once more the danger to sports stars from fans that are a little too invested in their favorite players or teams. Other sports related horrors have included riots that killed many at soccer matches, and a host of other needless tragedies.

Remember – it’s only a game!

13. Able Bodied Team in Paralympics Shocker

In 2000, the world was again shocked by sports, this time when the Spanish Paralympics basket ball team was revealed to be made up of ten able bodied, and only two disabled players.

One of the players revealed that they were told to “pretend to be stupid.” Their ruse was discovered shortly after the games, and they were forced to return their medals.

12. Nancy Kerrigan attacks

Last, but certainly not least from the world of sports, was the story of Nancy Kerrigan, who was brutally attacked, in 1994, and clubbed in the knee by a thug hired by the ex husband of Tonya Harding, one of her main competitors.

Despite the attack, Kerrigan went on to win the silver in the Winter Games at Lillehammer that year, and many future successes. Harding, on the other hand, was found guilty of lying to the investigators on the case, and banned for life from the sport of figure skating. She briefly ventured into the world of women’s professional boxing, with little success, and has since been in trouble with the law again.

11. Nelson Mandela Walks Free

After 27 years of incarceration as a political prisoner by the apartheid regime in South Africa, Nelson Mandela was finally released from prison in 1990, heralding a new era in that country’s history.

Just four short years later, he becomes the first democratically elected president of South Africa, and a global political and philanthropic icon. He has since used this fame to promote the fight against AIDS, with his 46664 campaign, and children’s rights through his Nelson Mandela Children’s Fund charity. He also received a joint Nobel Peace Prize with FW De Klerk, the president responsible for finally releasing him, and setting the African country on the road to democracy.

10. Pan Am Flight 103

In 1988, the Pan Am flight 103 exploded over Lockerbie in Scotland. Two hundred and seventy people were aboard, and one hundred and eighty nine of those were Americans, returning home for the holidays.

It was uncovered that a former Libyan secret service agent had planted a bomb, in a suitcase, on the plane, which lead to the crash. He was later convicted, and the Libyan government has since accepted responsibility for his actions.

9. Waco Texas Cult Incident

In 1993, after a fifty one day standoff with the FBI at the Branch Davidian cult compound, just outside Waco, Texas, the entire compound exploded in an enormous fireball.

The FBI had been spraying tear gas into the compound, attempting to arrest the cult leader, David Koresh, when the Davidians began firing on the officers. Shortly thereafter, the building was engulfed in flame, killing eighty members of the cult.

A subsequent investigation revealed that the Davidians had started the fire, and possibly, that the stockpiled weapons and explosives had contributed to the blast.

8. The Gulf War

In 1991, years before George W. Bush declared war on terror, George Bush Senior sent US troops into Iraq, when Saddam Hussein, dictatorial ruler of that country, invaded Kuwait, and refused to withdraw his forces.

The war lasted a very short while, but long enough to lose he lives of one hundred and forty eight US troops, and was a precursor to the eventual war in Iraq, which has claimed countless more, both US citizens, and Iraqis.

7. The OJ Simpson Murder Trial

In 1994, OJ Simpson made news with the murder trial that captivated the world for months.

Nicole Brown Simpson, and her friend Ron Goldman were discovered, butchered, and the former NFL star and actor was the prime suspect. A highlight of the trial was the chase, where Simpson refused to pull over, and led the police in a widely televised chase in his white Bronco.

Due to technicalities, the star was eventually acquitted, although the public largely maintained a belief in his innocence. The family of Nicole Brown sued Simpson civilly, and he has since been accused of stealing sports memorabilia in Las Vegas.

6. The Iraqi War

Never has America been involved in a war so destructive. Not since Vietnam anyway.

Following the initial attack on Iraq, and the eventual capture of Saddam Hussein, long an enemy of America, and the dictatorial leader who oppressed millions in his own country, the war should have ended.

However, although it has resulted in the execution of Hussein for his crimes, the battles continue to rage in Iraq, as insurgents continue to oppose the US lead forces. Since 2003, the war has raged unabated, killing thousands, costing millions, if not billions, and proving, once again, the futility of war.

We can but hope that a resolution is found soon.

5. The Fall of The Berlin Wall

Built shortly after the second world war, as a means to separate the communist East Germany from the non communist West, the Berlin wall stood for decades, separating a nation, and the families that lived in Germany when it was first erected by communist leaders.

Not only was the falling of the wall in 1989 a symbol of the reunification of Germany, it was symbolic of the end of communism, and the Cold War that had struck terror into the hearts of millions the world over for years.

If only that sentiment had taught the world, and its leaders something. Instead, after the euphoria was over, it was business as usual, power mongering, allowing sometimes petty squabbles to escalate into outright war, claiming the lives of millions of innocent bystanders.

4. Chernobyl

Despite warnings, an accident in 1986 at the Ukrainian nuclear power plant at Chernobyl caused the nuclear reactor to explode.

Radioactive fallout was sent over large parts of Europe, and over three hundred and thirty people had to be relocated. Since then, those living in the area surrounding the former plant have been plagued by disease, deformity and birth defects.

Yet another good indication that while nuclear power is an option, it shouldn’t be. The failure of a wind farm, or solar power generation plant would never result in such a catastrophe.

3. The Columbine Massacre

While the world battles, people die in wars, attacks and from dreadful diseases, we would like to think that our kids are safe at school at least.

That dearly held belief was shattered in 1999 however, when Eric Harris and Dylan Kebold walked into Columbine High School, near Denver in Collorado, and massacred twelve of their peers, and a teacher, before turning their guns on themselves, committing suicide.

A few years later, a similar incident at Virginia Tech claimed the lives of thirty three innocent bystanders, once again highlighting a disturbing trend towards violence in American youth.

2. The Rwandan Genocide

The 1994 government sponsored slaughter of over five hundred thousand people in Rwanda, within the space of around one hundred days, was surely one of the global community’s greatest shames.

Despite global media and news coverage of the atrocities being carried out as the two racial groups battled each other, the international community did nothing to stop the killing.

A few years on, and the Darfur crisis proved that nothing was learnt from that tragedy, as the war torn Sudanese region continues to self destruct unabated.

1. Same Sex Marriage Legalized in Massachusetts

Given the atrocities that have made it onto this list, the murders, wars, attacks and other inhuman acts, it almost seems ironic that gay marriage should make it onto the top twenty headlines list, however, when the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled in favor of legalizing same sex marriage in 2003, it sparked a media and political frenzy.

Just a year later, eleven other states had passed bans on same sex unions, in retaliation.

One has to ask, however, in a world so dominated by terrible things, bloodshed, disease and scandal, whether the right to commit to one’s partner, whether same sex or otherwise, should be a matter of national news coverage at all.

A good tear jerker strikes a chord within most of use, reminding us of the fleeting nature of our lives, and the importance of love for all of us. Usually, the characters in these books and movies have both dark and light aspects to their personalities, and although we may disapprove of their behavior in specific circumstances, the very human nature of their actions strikes a chord within most of us.

Often, the themes of illness and dying reinforce the belief that true love is worth sacrificing everything, although many of these stories also caution against becoming involved in love triangles or illicit affairs.

Whether on film, in literature, or in real life, there have been many enduring tales of love lost, however, it’s those that make it onto film, or the pages of a book, that are best remembered, and here is our list of the top 10:

10. Wuthering Heights

The 1847 novel by Emily Bronte is surely worthy of inclusion on any list of sad love stories. Following a life where the protagonists, Heathcliff and Catherine’s love for each other was thwarted at every turn, by circumstance and the people around them, Catherine dies, and their romance is never made real in life.

Set in Yorkshire, on the wind swept moors, the two doomed lovers meet first as children, when Catherine’s kindly father takes in the orphaned Heathcliff. When the old man dies however, Catherine’s brother takes over the estate, and forces Heathcliff to work as a laborer. During this time, Catherine meets Edgar Linton, and a few years later, they marry, however, as she is discussing the marriage with Nelly, the maid, Heathcliff overhears a portion of the conversation, where she states that marrying him would be degrading. He leaves, furious.

Catherine becomes ill after hearing of his desertion of her, but recovers, and eventually marries Edgar. Years later, Heathcliff returns, claims ownership of Wuthering Heights and marries Isabella, Edgar’s sister. Again Catherine becomes ill, and the two make their peace just hours before her death, finally admitting that they love each other.

Although they never managed to come together in life, however, the story of their ghosts walking hand in hand in the countryside adds a poignance to the ending.

Adapted into an academy nominated movie starring Sir Lawrence Olivier in 1939, and the subject of various other plays, music and more since then, this timeless tale of forbidden and thwarted love will surely endure for many more years to come.

9. Ghost

From the gothic and supernaturally heavy masterpiece that was Wuthering heights, it’s a short leap to 1990’s Oscar winner. Ghost focused on the tale of Sam Wheat, killed during a failed mugging, and his inability to relinquish his love for Molly Jensen. Conspiracy and hidden agendas are revealed when it becomes clear that the murder was at least partly the fault of Sam’s co worker at the bank, now pursuing Molly.

Sam approaches a medium, Oda Mae Brown, played to great effect by Whoopi Goldberg, thwarts his coworkers plot, and saves Molly. For those who have seen this 1990’s tear jerker, the song Unchained Melody will have particular significance, and the ending, where Sam, finally free from his earthly bounds, ascends to heaven, will cause even the most stoic a sniffle or two.

8. Gone With the Wind

This sweeping tale of the American South was first penned in 1936, and imortalised in film a mere three years later. Who can ever forget Scarlett O’Hara, played by the beautiful Vivien Leigh, or the dashing Rhett Butler, made flesh by Clarke Gable with such style.

The tale of an heiress from the South, entwined with the family estate, Tara, and her various romances, marriages and losses, which included a miscarriage and losing a child.

Scarlett O’Hara strikes one as the typical spoilt rich girl, playing with the affections of men, attempting to woo Ashley Wilkes, in love with her cousin, and blithely committing many other sins.

Her comeuppance, however, eventually comes when she realizes that she is truly in love with Rhett, however, that he has moved on. Hence the famous line: “Frankly my dear, I don’t give a damn.” If ever there was a cautionary tale about taking the feelings of others into account, this is it, but the shear number and magnitude of losses that Scarlett suffers, and her own involvement in those losses make it a truly tragic story.

7. Titanic

A big jump from the old South, Titanic nonetheless told a tragic love story that had millions of viewers in tears. The story of that doomed ship, and two passengers, the wealthy, privileged Rose, and the penniless Jack, the tale took us all on a roller coaster, from watching their love blossom in spite of societal convention, to the eventual sinking of the ship, and Jack’s sacrifice of his own life.

Deserving of its widespread success, the story was truly a modern day contender. The same type of sweeping epic that old Hollywood was so famous for.

6. Love Story

Another more modern film, this one from 1970, Ali McGraw and Ryan O’Neill had audiences ever since in tears as Jennifer Cavelleri and Oliver Barrett IV.

The tale begins with the arrival of the wealthy “old money” Oliver at Harvard, and his chance meeting with Jenniffer, a working class student at Radcliffe College. Despite their families disapproval of their love, they decide to marry after college, and once Oliver has secured a good job with a top law firm, and it’s when they are trying to start a family that Oliver learns that Jennifer is terminally ill.

Oliver hides the illness from her, on her doctor’s advice, but eventually, she discovers that she has cancer, and begins treatment. When the bills become too much for Oliver, he lies to his father to get the money to continue her treatment. In spite of all his efforts though, Jennifer finally succumbs to her disease, following an emotional scene in the hospital. If any story is enough to remind one of the fleeting nature of human life, this one should be!

5. Casablanca

Not only one of the top sad love stories, but one of the best movies of all time, of any genre, Casablanca, as the name suggests, is set in the city of Casablanca in Northern Africa, where Rick Blaine owns a bar called Rick’s Place, while secretly supporting the anti Nazi movement, it being during the second World War.

When his former lover, Ilsa Lund, and her husband, Victor Laszlo arrive, they are in desperate need of a means to return to America, a means which Rick has, in the form of paperwork, however, having been scorned by Lund, he refuses to part with them.

After much soul searching, and when the truth surrounding her abandonment of Rick emerges, he eventually relents, allowing his lover, with whom he is still desperately in love, a feeling she reciprocates, to escape the Nazi’s. Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman truly brought their characters to life, and the story of selflessness, on many levels, is sure to leave you reaching for the Kleenex.

4. A Walk to Remember

A Walk to Remember started as a 1999 novel set in the 1950’s, but ended up a 2002 movie set in the present. Either one is guaranteed to bring tears to even the most cynical eyes.

A popular, if a little rebellious, high school boy named Landon Carter is given the choice between expulsion and various after school activities, including performing in the school play, and tutoring disadvantaged kids. He accepts the latter, which leads him to meet Jamie Sullivan, the preachers daughter, who is shy, quiet and old fashioned.

Slowly a friendship develops between the two, as they practice their lines for the play, and, following her appearance in that play, looking beautiful, and giving a stellar performance, they fall in love. However, the cruel hand of fate has already intervened, and Jamie eventually reveals to Landon that she has incurable leukeamia.

In spite of this, or maybe because of it, he sets about making the dreams on her list of things to do before she dies come true, culminating with their wedding in the same chapel her mother was married in, before she dies, leaving him a changed man.

3. West Side Story

Based on the Shakespearian classic, Romeo and Juliet, this tale revolves around two warring gangs in New York, the Jets and the Sharks, and two kids, who are members of the opposing gangs, Tony and Maria.

Like their centuries old compatriots, they are forced to try and keep their love a secret, but the war between the gangs escalates, leading to Tony killing a rival, Maria’s brother.When Maria discovers the murder, she is distraught, but eventually agrees to flee with Tony, getting away from the gangs. As she waits for him, Anita, her brother’s girlfriend, tries to convince her to leave Tony, but eventually agrees to take a message to him instead.

Anita, however, is attacked by the Jets, and lies, telling them that Maria’s relationship with Tony was discovered, and that she has been killed. Tony leaves to find Chino, her killer, and is shot, dying in Maria’s arms. As with Shakespeare’s classic, this is a cautionary tale, designed to show people that love should not be tethered by class, affiliation or other external factors, and warning of the consequences when it is.

2. Anna Karenina

Leo Tolstoy, the Russian artist in literature who brought the world War and Peace, also brought the tragic tale of Anna Karenina, who arrives in Moscow, to be met by Count Vronsky at the train station. The count promptly falls in love with the young woman.

While at the station however, a peasant falls in front of the train, being killed as it speeds into the station.

Eventually, despite Vronsky’s unspoken arrangement with another society lady, Kitty, Anna succumbs to the count’s attentions. Their affair results in a pregnancy, and when Vronsky’s horse falters and falls during a steeplechase, the woman is distraught. Her husband is present at the race, and notices her distress, rebuking her for her behavior.

Anna’s cuckolded husband decides to request a divorce, an act that in Russia at the time required proof of an affair, but is dissuaded when he hears that Anna is near dying following the birth of her and Vronsky’s child. At her bedside, he forgives Vronsky for the affair. He proceeds to accept the child, Vronsky’s daughter, Annie, and welcome Anna back into his household. She continues to pine for her lover however, and becomes increasingly jealous.

Vronsky eventually ends the affair, or seems to, and Russian society shuns her, leading her into insecurity and depression, and she eventually kills herself by throwing herself in front of a train, however, Vronsky had merely been shamed by Karenin, Anna’s husband’s forgiveness of him for the affair, and was still in love with Anna.

After her suicide, he volunteers for a war that there is no hope of returning from, leaving Annie, his daughter with Anna, in the care of Karenin, her husband.

This tragic tale serves as a warning that the path to true love is not always easy, and often rocky, and that a scorned lover may resort to desperate measures in their grief. As with most great tragic love stories, there are many warnings, that most would do well to heed.

1. Romeo and Juliet

Surely, when listing tragic romances, the story of Shakespeare’s star crossed lovers has to come in at number one, having endured for centuries, to be made into countless plays, movies and adaptations.

The story of two warring families, the Montagues and the Capulets, from different classes, this is the tale of two children of those families, the street wise Romeo and the wealthy Juliet.

After meeting, the two begin an illicit romance, knowing that if they were discovered, their families would disapprove. When fate conspires against them, Juliet decides to fake her death, only to be discovered, comatose, by Romeo, who promptly takes his own life. When Juliet awakes, to find Romeo, dead alongside her, she kills herself with his dagger.

A cautionary tale, as much as a tragic romance, this story reinforces the idea that true love will conquer all, and that even if only in death, sometimes, no matter what, lovers will be together. Had the families of these two people taken a step back, they could have averted the tragedy.

Unfortunately, something’s got to give. When you’ve got a limited income, and there are essentials like rent, or a mortgage, food and schooling, among other expenses to cover, sometimes, that give has to be in other bills. The choice is difficult for most, but when it comes down to it, survival comes first, and if it’s a choice between putting food on the table, and paying your store card, we all know what the result will be.

Most people don’t want to default on debt. They intend to pay their bills, and of course, having a good credit rating is very important to most of us, so we all try to pay our bills on time, but, when things get so bad that you just can’t do it anymore, when financial worries are mounting, the last thing you want is to be harassed on top of it all. You might have to move for some reason, or you might have lost your job. Escaping the harassment, and having time to regroup leads many people to avoid their creditors, to preserve their sanity.

This means that debt collectors are busier than ever. They’re hot on the trail of millions of defaulters all over the world, and because they are who they are, and they do what they do, they don’t actually care what your situation is. They get paid when you pay, so even though there are some tight controls on the debt collecting industry, many resort to illegal tricks to get their clients money out of you.

Here are a few of the sneakier tricks they may try on you to do just that.

10. Harass Your Family and Friends

Usually, when you sign a credit agreement, you’re asked to provide the details of at least one member of your family, who does not live with you.

If you default on payments, and if you cannot be reached, because you’ve moved, or for any other reason, debt collectors may decide to begin harassing those family members, in the hopes that they will reveal details about you that will help them track you down and claim money or goods from you. If you don’t want to be found for one reason or another, be aware of this, and take the necessary precautions, advising family and friends not to provide any personal information to anyone who calls them without first checking with you.

Make sure your family is aware of the tactics listed in this article, and if anything suspicious happens, have them get the details of the person calling them. Remember, debt collectors will use the same wearing down tactics on your loved ones, calling them at work, keeping them out of their job, emailing them or interrupting their dinner to try and find you, and collect their client’s money.

Of course, a good idea for your loved ones would be to calmly tell them that they have no idea where you are, but that if they continue to be harassed, they will press charges. They don’t have to talk to these people, or endure their harassment.

9. Go After Your Kids

It sounds terrible, but one of the easiest ways to find someone who does not want to be found is to find out where their kids are in school.

Once they’ve discovered where your kids are in school, these debt collectors may attempt to extract information from your kids, about where you live, work and so on. The younger your kids are, the more likely they are to innocently answer questions from a nice man or lady that talks to them.

Your kids should not be speaking to strangers anyway, but reinforce the idea that if anyone asks about mom or dad, they should refuse to answer, or say they don’t know. Better yet, make sure that your kids don’t wait around for you after school, giving these vultures the opportunity to extort information out of them.

8. Threaten to Tell Your Boss / Co-workers / The Public

When it comes to dirty laundry, or skeletons in the closet, financial trouble ranks pretty high on most people’s list. For some reason, we don’t want anyone to know when we’re having money trouble. We’ll blithely accept the airing of many other private matters, but keeping up appearances is important to most of us.

Debt collectors may exploit this desire for financial privacy by threatening to reveal details of your debt publicly. The truth is though that this is illegal, and, aside from enforcing a court debt collection order by garnishing your salary, in which case they would have to contact your employer, these companies are not allowed to provide any personal financial information to anyone, and certainly not publicly!

If anyone threatens to publicize your financial situation, inform them that you will refer the matter to your attorney, and will seek advice regarding defamation charges.

7. Pose as Medical Professionals

One way or another, debt collectors sometimes manage to access your medical records, usually by committing fraud, and lying to your doctor or hospital to access your history.

Oftentimes, they will use this information as a means to extract information from you, or your loved ones. For instance, if you had recently had a baby, they may find out which hospital you delivered in. They would then call you, or your family or friends, claiming to be from the hospital, and asking for your details.

This approach tends to work well for debt collectors, since they can claim, when speaking to your family or friends, that they cannot reveal the reason. Your loved ones are also likely to be more concerned, and reveal information they would not normally.

Our advice? Avoid the issue, then call the hospital or doctor in question yourself to find out if there is anything to any calls relating to medical issues that you get.

6. Claim You Are Owed Money

Another classic trick of debt collectors is to pose as someone from a company or organization that owes you money. We all love the idea of getting money we aren’t expecting, so this might make you excited, and cause you to divulge details you would not ordinarily.

They may call you up stating that XYZ corporation owes you money, or even that you have won a contest, and request your address and details to send you a check. Of course, that check will never come, and once you’ve given them your details, they will turn up on your doorstep shortly thereafter.

Again, the best advice is to find out where they claim to be calling from, check that the company really exists, and then call them independently.

5. Find You Online

There’s no denying the internet is a great resource (you found this list didn’t you) but people have been lulled into a false sense of security online, and will blithely reveal details they would never give out in real life in chat rooms or social networks.

Be wary of where you post your personal details, and make sure your Facebook and MySpace pages are set to private, and that only people you know can view your information. Even better, never include your address or phone number on those types of pages, and set up a separate email account.

If you sign up for any online offers or give your details to any sites, make sure they will be secure, and not divulged to anyone else, or avoid it altogether. It’s becoming easier and easier to find people thanks to the internet, and that one online offer could lead you to a world of trouble. No one likes having debt collectors on their doorstep every day, but that may be just what could happen if you’re free and easy with your information online.

4. Wear You Down Over Time

Ever wondered why debt collectors spend so much time and money calling and harassing you? Every day, maybe even several times a day, they will call you up to demand money.

What they’re really doing is trying to wear you down, in the hopes that you’ll get so sick of their calls, that you will ignore your budget, and pay them money that is allocated to more important expenses to them, to get them off your back.

After a while, of explaining your situation, trying to reason with them, or explaining that you cannot talk because you are at work, or trying to feed your kids, or whatever else, only to be ignored, you will probably get tired of the harassment. Unfortunately, your only choice here is to change your number. Debt collectors do not give up!

3. Use Guilt

Debt collectors know that most people really do intend to pay the money they owe back. That they would be paying if they had the spare cash to do so.

A common tactic therefore is to use your own guilt at being a bad payer to prompt you to repay the money you owe their client. They may be nice about it, or accusatory, but the desired result is the same – to break you down, make you feel guilty enough to take the money out of your budget to pay them, to the detriment of your own well being.

Remember the bottom line though – pay what you can afford, but make sure that your family’s needs are met first. Don’t let guilt trips make you sacrifice their well being for the benefit of a large corporation.

2. Lie

Debt collectors will lie to you, they will lie to your family, and they may even call utility companies to find out if you have municipal accounts to find you. They will lie to your cell phone company, your kids’ school, and anybody else in order to find you, and get the money you owe their client.

Of course, doing just that is their job, and they don’t get paid unless you pay, so you sort of have to understand why they do it. However, using lies to collect money owing to a company is illegal, and the debt collector, and the company they work for, as well as their client, can get in a lot of trouble for this sort of behavior.

If you speak to someone you suspect may be a debt collector, and they use any of the tactics we’ve described in this list, try to get their details, name, company and so on. You can report them for their behavior, and hopefully save someone else from this kind of persecution.

1. Convince You to Sign an Acknowledgement of Debt

For one reason or another, there may be some aspect of your credit agreement that makes its ability to stand up in a court situation dubious. In cases like these, debt collectors may try to have you sign an acknowledgement of debt.

What usually happens is that a nice representative of the company turns up on your doorstep, commiserates with you, sympathizes with your situation, and tells you that they understand. They’ll probably tell you that they understand your position, and that you don’t have to pay anything at the moment, but ask that you sign an acknowledgment of debt. They may just ask you to sign without showing you what it is that you are approving.

Once you’ve done that though, you’ve taken away any legal loophole or standing you may have had in court. In fact, you may have agreed to repay the full amount, plus charges, in a lump sum.

Bottom line? Debt collectors don’t want to help you. They want your money. Never, ever sign anything that a debt collector brings to you, without first seeking legal advice.

Unless you’re a member of the “live fast, die young, leave a good looking corpse” school of thought, chances are you’re on the lookout to at least prolong the life that fate has given you. If that’s the case, then these fifteen ways, in no particular order, to prolong your life should at least offer a little direction, and give you a little more time before you shuffle off your mortal coil, into whatever unknown lies beyond death.

Some of these are the same things your mother told you when you were growing up, but others may surprise you a little. Most of them are easy to start today, allowing you to rest assured that you’re doing your bit to ensure your long term health, and that you’ll be here for a long time to come.

15. Sleep a Little Less

Contrary to dear old mom’s advice, and to popular belief, eight hours of sleep a night is not the optimum, if you want to lead a longer life. We actually need a little less than that to function at our peak.

In fact, researchers have discovered that those who get around six hours a night live longer than those who get eight hours or more, or those that get four hours or less. So, stay up, watch a little late night TV, and live longer, or get up a little earlier in the morning, giving yourself a little me time, or reducing the stress of rushing to work. Either way, you’ll be getting added benefits. Think of it as health multi tasking.

14. Get, and Stay, Married

Yup, it’s been proven. Those of us who are married, both male and female, enjoy longer lives. But make sure you work on that relationship, because studies have also shown that those who divorce, and then remarry, are more likely to die sooner than their happily married counterparts.

So, if you’re in a relationship, spend some time working on it, making sure it’s a happy and enduring one, and if you’re not, go out there and meet someone! You’ll live a longer life with a companion and partner by your side.

13. Laugh

Laughter is a surprising and little thought of way to lengthen your lifespan, but it’s true. Laughing is a workout, since it is physical activity, and the more you laugh, the more of a workout it is! In fact, researchers have found that laughing 100 to 200 times can be equivalent, in fitness terms, to ten minutes of rowing or jogging, and sound like a lot more fun than either!

Not only that, but it has been proven to reduces stress hormone levels, and improve immune function, so next time you’re staying up late, waiting to kick off your six hours of sleep a night, why not put a funny DVD on instead, and lengthen your life a little?

12. Move to the Country

OK, so not all of us can give up city life and move to a rural paradise. However, studies in Tokyo, Japan, one of the world’s most population dense cities, have shown that retirees and pensioners that live near parks or other open spaces live longer.

So even if moving to a small town in the country is not realistic, try to spend more time outdoors, in the garden, or in your local park, or why not plan weekend trips to a cabin, or camping, fishing or hiking trips, that will give you more time with the family, and get you outdoors. It will lengthen your life, and you’ll probably have some fun at the same time!

11. Eat Right and Exercise

This is one that your mom definitely mentioned! Eating the right foods, steering clear of cholesterol laden saturated fats, maintaining a healthy weight, and getting around thirty minutes of exercise a day will significantly improve your lifespan.

Eat a balanced diet, lose the extra weight if you have it, and learn to love vegetables and fruit, particularly super foods like broccoli, tomatoes and anti oxidant rich fruits like blueberries, throw in some nuts, oily fish, lean meat and poultry, and other healthy foods, and you should do well on the diet front. As for exercise, there’s no need to join the gym to get your daily dose. Walk the dog, play with the kids, or mow the lawn – any physical activity counts!

Also important to note is that we’re not talking yo yo dieting here, which has actually been proven to be dangerous. Rather make manageable changes to diet and exercise that you can live with. Take up a sport, or commit to walking rather than driving where possible. When it comes to food, don’t starve yourself, just make sure your choices are healthy and low fat, and remember, often, it’s not the food itself, it’s the preparation, so swop French fries for baked potato, grill rather than frying meat, and ban the creamy sauces, and you should be fine!

10. Keep Your Brain Stimulated

The busier your brain is, the more likely it is to continue building new connections, keeping your overall mental function in tip top condition. Whether you read (or write) a book or two, learn chess, or the piano, keeping your brain constantly stimulated will help you stay mentally younger for longer.

Anything that keeps your mind active and busy helps, so find a new hobby, learn a new skill, take up crosswords or spend more time in the library, and you’ll be contributing to a longer, mentally fitter life.

9. Always Look On the Bright Side of Life

Monty Python said it best. Optimists, on average, live twelve years longer than their pessimistic counterparts, and are more likely to perform critical self examinations, detecting life threatening diseases like breast cancer early.

They’re also more likely to take medical advice when necessary, and to be less stressed, and prone to depression, than their gloomy compatriots. Plus, optimists are just more fun to be around, so, look for the silver lining, be a glass is half full kind of person, and live a longer and happier life!

8. Quit Smoking

Tough to do, but a very good idea. Damage from smoking is cumulative, so the sooner you quit, the less likely you are to die from heart or lung diseases related to smoking, and let’s face it, if you have to choose, lung cancer, emphysema, or heart disease would probably not be high on anyone’s list of ways to die!

Quitting smoking is tough though, with experts comparing the addiction a smoker has to nicotine to that of heroin, so speak to your doctor, get advice on one of the many methods to quit, take one of the quitting drugs available, or join a support group.

7. Keep Learning

Strangely enough, researchers at Arkansas University have found that the higher qualified someone is, the longer they are likely to live.

When you examine the findings though, it does make sense: less educated people are more likely to work in higher risk fields, like factories or construction sites, and they are more prone to taking up dangerous habits like smoking.

Add to that the likelihood that their access to quality medical care when they need it is lower, and you begin to see why studying, and educating yourself more, will eventually lead to a longer life, in fact, the more diplomas and degrees you rack up, the longer you’re likely to live.

6. A Few Vices Are Good for You

This is probably the best news you’ll get for a while: chocolate, and red wine, are good for you, so enjoy in moderation!

Chocolate contains phenols, which protect against diseases like cancer, and heart disease, and red wine contains a special kind of anti oxidant called phytochemicals, that also help reduce the likelihood of heart disease and other ailments. While you should not over indulge, since the sugar and fat in chocolate will still affect your weight, and the alcohol in wine is still alcohol, enjoying either in small quantities is most definitely allowable.

Sounding better already isn’t it? Now you can stay up late, watch a comedy, while eating chocolate and sipping Merlot!

5. Get the Necessary Tests

For some reason, we all seem to avoid the necessary tests – breast exams, pap smears, prostate exams, blood work. However, if there is something medically wrong, there’s more chance of curing, treating or managing serious diseases if you know sooner rather than later. In fact, in all cases, early detection, proper treatment and management will certainly increase your life expectancy.

It may be scary. You may want to stick your head in the sand, but getting tested for various life threatening diseases regularly can dramatically increase your chances of living with them, or beating them. Even something as simple as cholesterol, blood pressure, or diabetes test can be the difference between life and death. Isn’t it better to know?

4. Drink Tea

A cup of tea a day may be more use to you than the apple, when it comes to keeping the doctor away!

Researchers at Harvard have found that one cup of ordinary black tea a day cuts the risk of heart attack dramatically, while another study found that even after heart attack, drinking tea increases your chance of survival by twenty eight percent.

The good news is that ordinary black tea has been found to be as effective as green, so sit back and relax with a nice cup of tea, and drink to good heart health.

3. Get Yourself a Pet

Sounds crazy, doesn’t it? But research has discovered yet another benefit to owning a furry friend. People who own pets are, on average, healthier than those who don’t.

Owning an animal actually reduces stress levels, so those who own pets are more likely to be happier. They are also statistically less likely to visit the doctor than their non pet owning counterparts.

So go out, find a Fido or a Kitty, or some other critter to become a part of the family, since there are no limit on the type of pet you should own to enjoy this benefit, although choosing a dog may increase your likelihood of exercise. Then again, stroking a cat can be a great stress reliever!

2. Watch Your Bowels

Early warning signs of bowel cancer include an increase in problems like constipation, diarrhea, and bloody stools. Pay attention to your bowel movements, and if you notice a change, or if you are already experiencing any of these symptoms, make a point of seeing your doctor.

As with most cancers, bowel cancer is easier to treat when it is caught early, and since this is a particularly virulent form of the disease, it’s better to be safe than sorry!

1. Relax

Learning a relaxation technique, whether it be yoga or meditation, can greatly reduce your stress levels, known to contribute to everything from cancer to heart disease and stroke.

Try not to work too hard either. Work related stress contributes significantly to overall stress levels, and elevated stress levels mean a dip in your body’s immune system, as the fight of flight reflex kicks in. The Result? A higher likelihood of disease. In fact, according to researchers at Johns Hopkins, you have up to twenty times more chance of developing heart disease if you’re stressed.

Another interesting point to note is that taking work home with you is an early sign of feeling stressed and overworked. So workaholics beware! Leave work where it belongs, in the office, make more time to kick back, relax and spend time with family and friends, and you’ll live longer to enjoy the fruits of your labor!

The bottom line is, there are times when you need to argue, to get your point across, be heard and have your say, and knowing how to argue effectively can mean the difference between a useful, informative exchange, which leads to a resolution, and an undignified screaming match.

The art of effective arguing is a skill learnt over time, and, all too often, it’s something we have to learn the hard way. You don’t learn it at home, or at school, and you’ll need to practice every once in a while, in order to master the skill.

In the mean time, you could fake it till you make it, with our top ten effective argument tactics that will help you perfect your arguing style:

1. Know Your Goal

As with everything in life, effective arguing requires a goal. If you don’t know what you want to get out of the argument, whether it is a raise at work, or more help around the house, you’ll end up arguing in circles, and never get anywhere. Before you even engage the person, or people, that you need to argue with, figure out exactly what the ideal resolution to your argument is, and start from there.

If you aren’t one hundred percent sure of your goal, you will be more likely to venture off the track, be drawn into petty fights, or settle for less than you’re willing to. Stick to the facts, keep your eye on the prize, and don’t allow yourself to be drawn off topic.

2. Get Your Ducks in a Row

Make sure you know your facts. If you’re arguing for a raise, for example, gather proof that you are going above and beyond the call of duty, and are an asset to the company.

When gathering evidence, or information that you will use in your argument, be as specific as possible. For example, in the above mentioned scenario, mention that you put in an average of five hours of overtime per week. Sounds a lot more convincing than “I work overtime a lot.” Facts and figures are the cornerstone of your argument, so have them ready for when you need them!

Take some time to sit down, and figure out exactly what it is that supports your argument best. If necessary, get documented proof, for instance, if you’re arguing with your spouse about chores around the house, take photos of their wet towel lying on the floor. Make sure there’s a date stamp, and take a picture every time you have to pick that towel up. That way, when you argue with them, and they deny everything, you will have proof to back up your argument.

If your argument is valid, there must be some proof, so make sure you have it in your arsenal.

3. Write a Script

When we say script, not word for word, but prepare your argument on paper. Figure out what you are going to say, what evidence you are going to use, and how you are going to raise the issue that will lead you to your goal.
Knowing what you are going to say before you go into an argument can help you stick to the facts, and reach a satisfactory resolution quicker and easier than just throwing random information out there, in the hopes that something will work!

Jot down your ideas, then take it a step further, and jot down possible responses to your arguments. Think of all the possible rebuttals you could hear, and come up with valid, concrete answers for them. If it helps, you could even practice your script or argument with a friend, or even in front of the mirror, to give yourself a “dry run” before the big event!

4. Speak Your Mind

You might be someone who avoids conflict. Someone who would like to say something, but who keeps it all bottled up inside. Of course, there are two possible outcomes for that: one, you keep it in for good, quietly seething to yourself, becoming resentful and angry. The second possibility is that you can’t keep it in, and you lose it one day, screaming, shouting, quitting your job, or similarly catastrophic results.

Since neither of those results in you getting what you want, they should not be options. Choose to argue smart, make your preparations, and get what you want. The whole point of an argument, regardless of the cause, or goal of the argument, is to convince the other party that your point of view is correct. Failing that, to reach an amicable compromise.

If you feel strongly enough about anything, eventually you are going to have to speak your mind, just make sure that you state your case as eloquently and succinctly as possible, while still raising all the points you believe are relevant, and presenting the evidence you feel should be considered.

5. Listen

While we’re always sure that we have the only valid point of view, there may be valid points from the opposing side as well as yours. Take care to listen and consider their views, rather than single mindedly refusing to accept the possibility that someone else’s opinion may also have merit.

Listening to others is also just plain good manners, and since you’re arguing because you want something, you’d be well served to maintain politeness, and show your opponent you value their input. After all, as the saying goes – do unto others as you would have them do unto you.

If you’re not prepared to listen, or to compromise, or consider other opinions, what you’re aiming for is not an argument. It’s a dictatorship. You have to consider the views of others on their merit, in order to achieve your goals, so force yourself to pay attention. You might even find that they suggest a better resolution than you hoped for, or even thought of!

6. Respond to Valid Points

If the person you are arguing with raises valid points, you need to address them logically. This is where the preparation pays off. If you’ve gathered your information correctly, and your thinking is sound, you should have an argument that is up to the challenge. If, however, the points they have raised make sense to you, you may need to rethink your goal, or at least be willing to negotiate.

Remember, if you don’t have a suitable response, you may not have thought through your argument enough. If you find yourself at a loss to explain your position, you may want to draw back, rethink your position, and try again another day.

7. Stay Calm

Raised voices, insults and accusations are the fastest ways to take a potentially valuable argument from useful to embarrassing or even allow it to morph into an undignified brawl.

Make sure that you keep your tone of voice, and body language respectful, and never use foul language or threatening gestures to try and make a point. In fact, if you are angry or upset, rather avoid the argument, and make an appointment to discuss the matter later.

Often, you will find that people will try to draw you in to a fight to distract you from the main point. If you remain calm, focus on the goal, and refuse to be baited, eventually, they will have to discuss the matter with you rationally.

If you’ve ever watched a court room drama, you’ll know that lawyers rarely ever get emotional in court. That’s exactly what you want to aim for – calm, detached presentation of the facts, followed by debate, negotiation, and eventually, hopefully, a resolution you can both live with.

8. Use “I” Statements

When arguing, try to use statements like “I feel” or “I’ve noticed” to describe your feelings or events. Nothing gets people’s back up as quickly as being accused of something, and using any sentence that starts with “You always…” is guaranteed to do just that.

If you concentrate on always starting your sentences with I, you should make it clear that this is about your feelings, rather than with something they have done, or failed to do. Consider the difference between the statements “I feel I am worth more to the company” and “You don’t pay me enough.” Notice how the first one just seems more respectful? That’s exactly what you’re going for.

Keep your observations to your own experience, and leave the assumptions out of the picture. Make sure you present your opinions, but do so in a way that respects your opponents right to their own. You’re aiming to find middle ground here – not make an enemy for life!

9. Watch Your Body Language

As we’ve mentioned before, body language, as much as words, can lead an argument quickly into a fight. Avoid crossing your arms, maintain a suitable distance, avoiding getting into your opponent’s personal space, and never use gestures such as finger pointing. Likewise, nothing is likely to infuriate your opponent as quickly as rolling your eyes, or an elaborate sigh.
Unless you’re looking for a fight, your body language, gestures and tone should be respectful at all times.

Then again, if you’re arguing for something, like a raise, you also want to present the image that you are confident that you are correct. Showing signs of nervousness, stress or anxiety, like wringing your hands, or playing with your hair, can betray that nervousness, and may lead to someone, like your boss, picking up on and using that nervousness to their advantage, with the result that you lose the argument.

Aim for impassive, relaxed body language. If you can, stand when you address someone who is seated, which puts you at a physical height advantage, and therefore a mental position of power. The more calm and logical you look, the more likely you are to achieve more in your argument. Keep your hands still, make eye contact, and avoid excessive displays of emotion.

10. Know Your Fall Back Position

When we argue, we always have an ideal in mind. A 20% raise, for example. However, we usually also have a minimum that we’re willing to accept. Maybe 10% would be satisfactory. For now. Perhaps you would be willing to consider something else instead? For example, if you are arguing with your spouse for more help around the house, maybe you’d be willing to consider hiring help?

Make sure you know, before you even start an argument, where your fallback position is. What the minimum you’re willing to settle for is. That way, even if you get a no on your ideal, you have some room to negotiate. Compromise is better than losing, isn’t it?

Then again, if your opponent won’t even raise their suggestions for resolution to meet your minimum requirement, you’re probably fighting a losing battle, and looking for other resolutions may be your best course of action. Once you know where you draw the line, you’ll know when to cut your losses, stop fighting a losing battle, and move on to more productive pursuits.

Of course, there’s always a chance, in any argument, that your opponent will throw you a complete curveball, suggest something you’d never considered, or raise an argument or rebuttal you’d never thought of. Be willing to consider any options, arguments or statements that your opponent may raise, and remember, just because you’ve started the argument, put the matter on the table, and raised the question, does not mean you need to finish it in one sitting.

If needs be, withdraw, schedule another appointment, rethink your argument, strategy and goal, and try again. After all, your goal is worth it, isn’t it? And as the saying goes – Rome wasn’t built in a day.

10. World War III

World War III could be the end of the world through nuclear apocalypse.

Nuclear apocalypse is one of the most common theories about how mankind will meet its doom. The World War III scenario predicts that if another global war were to occur, human beings would self destruct through the use of nuclear weapons. The weapons themselves might not blow up all of earth, but the long-term radiation effects and the atmospheric changes could eventually obliterate all life.

Many people think that the threat of World War III has diminished greatly since the end of the Cold War, when the potential for nuclear battle was at its highest. Some scholars even go as far as to call the Cold War World War III because most of the world was in some way involved. Regardless, the threat of nuclear fallout still exists, even if it has become less likely.

9. Big Crunch

The Big Crunch hypothesis is like the opposite of the Big Bang; it predicts that, eventually, the universe will stop expanding and begin retracting, ultimately becoming a black hole. The idea is that all the matter in the universe would be attracted together due to gravity. Eventually, the gravitational pull would form clumps of dense matter, which would lead to black holes. Over time, all the black holes would converge to form the Big Crunch singularity. If this were to happen, it wouldn’t be anytime soon. Scientists estimate that a Big Crunch event wouldn’t be likely until more than 100 billion years in the future.

Recent experimental evidence has made the Big Crunch theory seem unlikely. Now, most scientists speculate that the rate of the universe’s expansion isn’t slowing down, as would be anticipated with the Big Crunch. Instead, it appears that the universe is growing more quickly! But we’ll never know for sure what will be the fate of our universe. All of these ideas are highly theoretical, and the Big Crunch, like all theories, is purely speculative.

8. Ragnarok

“The Battle of the Doomed God,” a painting by Friedrich Wilhelm Heine.

In ancient Norse mythology, the Ragnarok is equivalent to the end of the world as we know it. This doomsday event was predicted in multiple Norse poems and prose writings, and it literally translates to “doom of the powers” or “twilight of the gods.” In the Norse poems, a volva, or priestess, prophesies about the final battle between the gods and evil forces. During the war, Odin and Thor, two major gods, are killed. Several other minor deities die too. After the battle, the sun becomes black, the stars vanish, and people flee their homes as the earth sinks into the sea.

Norse mythology doesn’t consider the Ragnarok to be the end of all things, however. In the poems, the earth eventually resurfaces. A few gods survive the catastrophe, and they meet to begin re-cultivating the land. Two human beings survive the Ragnarok as well, and they repopulate the earth with their descendents. A new sun lights up the sky, the next generation of gods is in power, and people live in peace.

7. Death of the Sun

This isn’t so much a theory as it is a guarantee. Like all other stars, our sun will eventually die. And when that happens, earth will either be destroyed altogether or rendered lifeless from extreme heat or frigid cold. But don’t worry. We’ve got about billions of years before that starts to happen.

Stellar evolution predicts five billion years from now to be the time when the sun will exhaust its fuel supply and become a red giant. When this happens, the sun will expand and become more luminous. If the red giant sun doesn’t envelop and destroy the earth with its outer reaches, then its increased heat will cause the oceans to boil and most all living things to die. After the red giant phase, the sun will become a white dwarf. If the earth still exists at that point, it will become frigidly cold. Any remaining life will surely perish. It’s a no-win situation.

6. Zombie Apocalypse

The zombie apocalypse scenario began with Night of the Living Dead, a 1968 film directed by George Romero. Since then, it has been a popular end-of-the-world plot in science fiction and horror novels and films. The basic premise is that zombies, or reanimated corpses, unexplainably show up and begin attacking people all over the world. Authorities are slow to react to the crisis, so the zombies eventually destroy human society. A few survivors may remain in small pockets on earth, but most people either perish or turn into zombies themselves.

Zombie theories are usually confined to the world of fiction, but some people do take these apocalyptic ideas seriously, sort of. Fans of zombie literature have been known to try to prepare for the potential apocalypse by creating web site detailing escape plans and warning about zombie sightings. And pamphlets about how to survive zombie attacks are popular as well. Some fans have even created anti-zombie weapons to use when the time comes (or to just show off to their friends). So while a zombie apocalypse is unlikely, this theory does get its fair share of attention.

5. End of the Kali Yuga

The demon Kali, wielding a sword.

In Hindu mythology, time is broken into four ages, or Yugas, that occur in cycles. The Kali Yuga is the era of moral and spiritual collapse, when humans lose touch with religion and give in to sin. Most interpretations of Hindu scriptures believe that mankind is currently in the Kali Yuga, which is sometimes called the age of darkness. According to these views, the Kali Yuga began with the death of Krishna, an incarnation of the god Vishnu, in about 3101 B.C. Traditionally, the Kali Yuga is thought to last for 432,000 years.

The Kali Yuga is marked by an apocalyptic series of events, ending with a fantastic battle between good and evil. Kali, the demon of discord who rules over the age, will wreak havoc throughout the Kali Yuga. When he has tormented mankind to the point of moral failure, the god Vishnu will be reincarnated as Kalki. He will fight and kill the demon, bringing in a new age of peace, known as the Satya Yuga.

4. Buddhist Eschatology

The Buddha Maitreya, who will bring new peace when the world is lost.
In Buddhist eschatology, or belief about the end of the world, moral denigration is the ultimate apocalyptic event. The belief derives from Gautama Buddha’s prediction that his teaching would be lost in 500 years. Since his time, this estimated time period has been extended to 5,000 years. When Buddha’s teachings are lost, the world will become amoral. Eventually, all memory of Buddha himself will be lost. The tradition believes that after this happens, a new Buddha named Maitreya will come to the earth to renew the religion’s teachings. It is believed that Maitreya is now in heaven waiting to be reborn into the world.

After Maitreya’s time, the world will again worsen. Wars will be common. Eventually, beings cease to be born. Then, great destruction will destroy much of the earth, including the realms of humans. Buddhists believe in many “worlds,” which are inhabited by varying levels of moral beings. The upper worlds will survive, but the lower ones will be wiped out. After a period of emptiness, the worlds will begin to be rebuilt, humans will reappear in a holier state, and the cycle will be renewed.

3. End Times

Michelangelo’s fresco of the Last Judgment.

In most Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, the end of the world is marked by a series of events that are collectively known as the end times or the end of days. The details of these last days vary between religions and sects, but all share a common sequence: there will be period of tribulation, then a great battle between good and evil. The battle will be followed by the return or appearance of the Messiah, who will judge the living and the dead and bring the Kingdom of God to the earth.

There are many arguments within these religions about when the end times will come. Some scholars maintain that the tribulations of the end times are an ongoing process, but others think they will happen sometime in the future. It’s also not known if life will continue on earth after the apocalypse, or if humans will only live spiritually in heaven. Regardless, belief in some kind of apocalypse that ends with a divine appearance is crucial to the three great monotheistic religions of the world.

2. Doomsday Argument

Human population through modern times.

The Doomsday argument, or DA, is a mathematical argument that postulates the fate of the human race based on an estimate of the total number of humans born so far. It was first proposed by physicist Brandon Carter in 1983. Based on the evidence used, the argument predicts we are currently about halfway through human history. Ultimately, the DA states that there is a 95 percent chance that humans will be extinct within 9120 years.

The argument uses simple logic to state that we can be 95 percent certain that we are within the last 95 percent of humans to ever live. Based on this principle, the DA states that there is a 95 percent chance that the total number of humans will be less than 20n, with n standing for our position in the lineup of human lives over history. If we use 60 billion as an estimate for the total humans born so far, we can get that the total number of humans ever to live will be about 1.2 trillion. Assuming a the population of the world stabilizes at 10 billion, and that human life expectancy is about 80 years, the DA estimates that all the remaining humans will be born in about 9120 years.

The Doomsday argument takes a lot for granted, so it has sparked many rebuttals. But it remains a topic of consideration. And the fact that it puts human existence into numerical terms makes it one of the most intriguing end-of-humankind theories out there.

1. 2012 Doomsday Prediction

A stone with carvings referring to a date on the Mayan calendar.

All around the world, there are pockets of people convinced that 2012 will bring about the end of time, or at least a huge change in life as we know it. The theory is based on the Mesoamerican Long Calendar, a timekeeping device developed by the Mayans, which will end its current 5,125-year cycle on December 21, 2012.

Proponents of the prediction claim that the Mayans knew about a catastrophic event that would take place at the end of the 12th baktun, or 400-year cycle, on the calendar. December 12, 2012 corresponds to the end of this 12th cycle, when the calendar will read 12.12.12.12.12. Since the Mayans counted in 12s, supporters claim that there can be nothing beyond this setting. Believers think that some kind of geological event will occur on that day, which may bring total destruction to life on earth. Pole shifts and planet collisions are two common theories about what will happen. Some new age predictions claim that humans will not die, but will reach a higher level of consciousness. Critics of the theory think that the calendar will just continue to the 13th baktin, reading 13.0.0.0.0.

Only one Mayan artifact that has been found so far mentions anything about the end of the calendar cycle. This tablet is in poor condition, but it appears to state that the end of the 12th baktin will correspond to the return of Quetzelcoatl, the principle Mayan god. Some proponents of the theory have taken this to mean that 2012 could correspond to the Second Coming of Christ, Armageddon or other apocalyptic events. The theory has become more popular due to recent specials about it that aired on the History Channel.

What will happen on 12/12/12? No one knows. We’ll just have to wait and see.

The following is a list of 10 great pirate plunderers from history. These guys might not all have been rolling in treasure, as depicted in the movies, but they did do some notorious pillaging in their day.

10. Ushkuiniks

The ushkuiniks were a medieval band of pirates based in the Old Russian republic of Novgorod, and they were feared raiders in their time. The name “ushkuinik” comes from “ushkui,” which is the term for the long, flat boats that the pirates used for swiftly traveling the Volga River. Fierce warriors from Novgorod were active as early as the 10th century, but it wasn’t until the 1320s that the ushkuiniks were well organized pirates. Then, they enjoyed the patronage of Novgorodian elite families, who wanted to intimidate neighbors with military force.

Intimidation wasn’t the only thing the ushkuiniks did. They were known for pillaging, killing, and destroying entire cities. Over a period of about 30 years, the ushkuiniks sacked a burned multiple cities on the Upper Volga River. In fact, the city of Kostroma was so badly burnt by the ushkuiniks that it had to be rebuilt in a new location! They also looted the city of Nizhny Novgorod multiple times and were feared as far away as the city of Kazan, which was more than 200 miles from the ushkuinik’s base. Eventually, however, the Volga region came to peace, at least in terms of pirating. The ushkuiniks fell apart as the power of Muscovy grew stronger and overtook Novgorad.

9. Dunkirkers

The Dunkirkers pillaged trade ships for more than 80 years, collecting merchant’s wares and supplies as plunder. They were a group of privateers who wreaked havoc on the Dutch during the Eighty Years War from 1568 to 1648. During that time, the Dutch Republic was revolting against the Spanish Empire, and although the rebels would eventually be successful, Spain didn’t allow the Dutch to gain independence easily. The Spanish monarchy stationed war ships at the Flemish city of Dunkirk, just a few miles from Dutch lands. Eventually, private ships joined the Spanish war fleet in the fight against the Dutch, and together these privateers were called the Dunkirkers. The Dutch simply called them pirates.

The Dunkirkers main goal was to damage Dutch shipping. And they did it well. The Dunkirkers managed to capture multiple Dutch vessels, which effectively destroyed the republic’s fishing industry. Many trade ships were also captured on their way back to the Dutch Republic filled with valuable cargo. After 1621, the Dunkirkers were at their peak, capturing an average of 229 Dutch ships each year! They also took fleets of neutral British vessels carrying supplies. Finally, in 1646, the pirating ended when the city of Dunkirk was captured with a combined effort from France and the Dutch Republic.

8. Ching Shih (1785-1844)

Little is known about the early life of Ching Shih, a prominent female pirate and one of history’s greatest plunderers. Her real name has been lost; Ching Shih, which means “widow of Zheng,” only relates her to her fellow-pirate husband. At some point in her early life, Ching Shih began working as a prostitute at a floating brothel near Canton, a province in Southern China. In 1801, she met and married Zheng Yi, a famous Chinese pirate. She joined Yi on his ship and learned pirating ways.

Shortly after Ching Shih’s marriage, her husband banded together powerful pirate groups into one alliance. The pirate band was greatly feared and regularly sacked ships in the Canton area. When Zheng Yi died in 1807, Ching Shih worked her way into the command of the pirate group. She terrorized towns and markets up and down the Chinese coast, collecting large sums of money in tribute along the way.

In 1810, the Chinese government offered Ching Shih amnesty, which she took, ending her pirating career. Ching Shi was allowed to keep her looted property. She married her adopted son and set up a gambling house on land.

7. Godfrid Haraldsson (820?-856?)

As a notorious Viking fighter, Godfrid Haraldsson did his fair share of pillaging. Haraldsson was actually born to a royal family—he was the son of Danish King Harald Klak—but he never ascended to the throne. Instead, Haraldsson teamed up with his cousin Rorik to plunder kingdoms near Denmark. The pair raided several small kingdoms in what is now France, and they even took possession of Frisia, an area on the north coast, for a time.

After successfully raiding many small cities and kingdoms, Haraldsson decided to go after a big prize, the large kingdom of Francia. The entire Frankish army was summoned to face Haraldsson and his fellow Vikings, but they made no progress. Eventually, Haraldsson left Francia with a large tribute. He returned to his native Denmark to try to take the throne from his father’s successor, but failed. Haraldsson then fell into obscurity. He probably either died on a raid or spent the rest of his life enjoying his earnings.

6. Henry Morgan (1635-1688)

Sir Henry Morgan is one of the most infamous men in the history of the Caribbean pirates, having pillaged and plundered the majority of Spain’s colonial holdings during his reign on the seas. Morgan was born in Wales, but lived in Jamaica for much of his life. He became a captain and then an admiral in the British Navy based in Jamaica. Over the course of his career, he was meant to protect the English colony of Jamaica and prevent the Spanish from becoming too strong. But he took this mandate to the extreme, becoming a full-fledged pirate with the guise of English support.

During his pirating years, Morgan sacked and plundered multiple Spanish settlements, taking large quantities of treasure whenever possible. He also attacked plenty of Spanish ships. One of his most known undertakings was the sacking of Panama City, which was the richest city in New Spain at the time. He marched inland from the coast of Panama, eventually reaching the capital city, which he burned to the ground. Morgan killed and tortured many residents in his search for gold, but his Panama expedition was largely unsuccessful in terms of treasure. He returned to Jamaica and was reprimanded for recklessness.

Eventually, Morgan gave up piracy. He was one of the few pirates to ever retire after making a substantial fortune in plundering. He gained weight and took to drinking after his retirement. He died in 1688, possibly of liver failure from his heavy drinking. Today, Morgan’s successful pirating career and overindulging drinking habits are immortalized in Captain Morgan’s Spiced Rum, a popular brand of alcohol made in the Caribbean.

5. Wokou

The Wokou were Japanese pirates who were dreaded in China and Korea for their fearless attacks on trading vessels in the 13th to 16th centuries. Not only did Wokou pirates attack ships and take the goods on board, but they also received money in tribute from Chinese leaders eager to keep them away for their cities. The Wokou were originally commanded by feudal Japanese lords, who led ships filled with laborers and fishermen on raids. But interestingly, later Wokou raiding parties were composed of mostly Chinese rebels.

The Wokou were at their peak in the 14th century. During the period from 1376 to 1385, 174 pirate raids were recorded in Korea alone. The Korean capital of Gaeseong was a favorite place for the Wokou to pillage; they would raid that city repeatedly. Oftentimes, the Wokou would take all the grain stores in a town. Taking prisoners for slaves was another favorite thing of the Wokou. They were the terrors of the Yellow Sea for centuries. But by the mid 16th century, the Wokou had almost entirely disappeared due to new leadership in Japan.

4. Jean Fleury (d. 1527)

Jean Fleury arguably won the biggest stash of treasure of any pirate in history. Fleury was a French corsair, or privateer, who saw action in the Four Years’ War against Italy. But his best loot came in 1522, when Fleury and his crew overtook two Spanish galleons that were loaded with treasure from the New World. The Spanish ships were holding cargo from Cortez’s conquest of Mexico; each vessel was packed with gold and silver object from the Aztec’s capital city. Fleury snuck up on the galleons as they were nearing the coast of Portugal. He took control of the ships and rerouted the treasure to England, where King Francis I was given it in tribute. But Fleury himself surely had a share as well.

Fleury’s pirating career continued the next year. He sacked more than 30 Spanish and Portuguese ships in that one year before being captured by the Spanish. Eventually, Fleury was hanged for piracy. Unfortunately for him, he didn’t get to take much advantage of his spectacular treasure.

3. Arab Warriors

They didn’t do it by sea, by the Arab warriors of the 9th century sure did pillage some amazing treasure. In 876, Arab warriors sacked the city of Rome and plundered the Basilica of St. Peter, which was filled with expensive and important artifacts from the early Christian Church. Another major basilica, San Paolo, was robbed during the Arab attack as well.

Pope Paschal I had moved many of the Church’s most important treasures into the fortified central structure of the city years before. Arab warriors had begun expanding into southern Italy under Paschal’s reign, and he knew it was only a matter of time before they would make it to Rome itself. But despite Paschal’s preparation, much of the city outside the walled area—including the two basilicas—was completely ransacked.

2. Somali pirates

Even in modern times, pirates are paying the bills with looting, sacking, and hijacking. The pirates who work off the Somali coast are a perfect example. These pirates get their plunder by taking over shipping vessels and demanding ransom. In the year prior to November 2008, Somali pirates made an estimated $150 million!

Somalia is one of the poorest nations in the world, so any way to make millions of dollars is appealing there. Hence, pirating became popular. Pirates have been active off the coast of Somalia since the country’s government effectively collapsed with the start of civil war in 1990. Since then, piracy has been a huge threat to international shipping. Many countries around the world have joined forces to stop pirate attacks, but the hijacking continues.

1. Sir Francis Drake (1540-1596)

Sir Francis Drake is known as the first person to circumnavigate the world, and today he is revered as a masterful explorer. But he was also a pirate.

To the English, Drake’s privateer lifestyle was considered heroic, but in Spain, he was considered the worst pirate around. His pirating ways actually began during his trip around the world; near Lima, Drake captured a Spanish ship laden with gold from Peru. After this first sacking, Drake heard of another Spanish treasure ship, Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion, which was sailing west. Drake’s crew chased the vessel and ransacked it as well.

After war broke out between England and Spain in 1585, Drake sailed back to the New World and destroyed the Spanish ports of Santo Domingo and Cartagena. He also captured San Augustin in Florida. Drake was second in command when the English defeated the Spanish Armada, and he destroyed countless Spanish ships during that time. Later, his sole task was to seek out and pillage or sink Spanish galleons. The Spanish King, Phillip II, put a 20,000 ducat (equivalent to about $8 million) price on Drake’s head, but he was never turned over. Drake died of dysentery in 1596 during another expedition to the New World.

Drake was never thought of as a pirate in the English consciousness, but his killing, pillaging, and looting ways definitely qualify him as such. And he wasn’t just any pirate; he was a skilled privateer. Drake’s hijacking of multiple Spanish treasure ships makes him one of the most successful pirates in history.

Below, you’ll find a list of 10 of the least known cultures and civilizations from our past. All of these groups have been well researched, and although their details may be common knowledge in academic circles, they’re not well known to the average person. These cultures are samplings from all over the world, from a broad range of time periods in prehistory and ancient times.

For the purposes of this list, prehistory means before writing; ancient history refers to the period after writing until the fall of the Roman Empire in AD 476. However, it’s important to recognize that these terms are arbitrary, and that many scholars will use prehistory and ancient history in different ways. Regardless, you can think of the cultures listed below as peoples who flourished before the Middle Ages, before the organization of modern city states, and before the start of most people’s knowledge of history. These are our hidden ancestors.

10. Harappan Civilization (2600 B.C. to 1900 B.C.)

The Harappan Civilization extended through what is today Pakistan. Harappan culture flourished during the mature period of the Indus Valley Civilization, so the Harappan Civilization is really a subset of this larger group. The name for the civilization comes from the first of its first discovered city, Harappa, which was unearthed in 1842. Harappan culture thrived during the same time period as Dynastic Mesopotamia and Early Egypt. As of today, more than 1,000 cities from the Harappan Civilization have been found.

The Indus Valley cities found from this time period exhibit excellent urban planning. The sewerage and drainage systems in place were far more advanced than elsewhere in the world. And the Harappans also were masters of architecture; they built walled cities with granaries, warehouses, citadels, and possibly even public baths. They were also some of the first people to develop a uniform system of weights and measures. The Harappans were skilled metallurgists too, having developed advanced skills with copper, tin, bronze, and lead.

The Harappans used a large trade network both within their civilization and outside of it. There is evidence for extensive trade between the Harappans and the Mesopotamians. Archaeologists aren’t sure if the Harappans had a writing system or not. Symbols have been found, but it has yet to be determined whether these were used for everyday writing or just as agricultural markers.

In about 1800 B.C., the Indus Valley Civilization began to decline. By 1700 B.C., all the cities had been abandoned. No one knows why the civilization waned, but the culture did live on. Its influence was felt throughout the region for years to come.

9. Valdivia Culture (3500 B.C. to 1800 B.C.)

The Valdivia Culture was made up of ancient peoples who lived near what is now modern day Valdivia, a coastal town in Ecuador. The culture was first discovered in 1956 by Emilio Estrado, who suggested that it may have been linked to the ancient Jomon culture in Japan based on similarities in pottery styles. Estrado’s theory proposed trans-Pacific trade between the two groups, but it has been largely dismissed because of a lack of evidence.

The Valdivian people lived in communities with houses built in circles around central plazas. They were sedentary people who grew corn, beans, squash, peppers, and cotton. They were skilled fishermen and occasional deer hunters. They were also excellent craftsmen, creating beautiful clay works. Mature Valdivia pottery is dark red and polished, and the trademark piece is a “Venus” figure, a female figurine that was likely used in ritual fertility ceremonies.

Eventually, the Valdivia culture died out. The area was repopulated by groups unconnected with a central culture.

8. Chavin Culture (900 B.C. to 200 B.C.)

The Chavin culture was prevalent in the highlands of Peru for more than 700 years. The influence of the culture stretched for hundreds of miles along Peru’s coast with multiple ruin sites, a fact which has led some people to call it a full-out civilization. The Chavin people domesticated llamas for pack animals, food, and wool, and developed the technique of making jerky. They were also skilled agriculturalists, growing quinoa, potatoes, and corn.

Chavin de Huantar, an impressive temple and World Heritage Site, is the most known relic of Chavin culture. The temple was an architectural masterpiece. It was given a draining system that not only kept water from destroying it, but also created a load, rushing sound for effect. The temple is built of stones that are not found anywhere near the site, which means the builders had to have brought them in from far away. It’s also home to a number of intricate carvings, including the Lancon, a 4.5-meter-long granite stone that was a central cult figure in the Chavin way of life.

Chavin art is dominated with images of fanged felines, which are thought to be examples of deities or, possibly, references to altered states of consciousness. These fanged felines can be seen in artifacts up and down the Peruvian coast, proving the Chavin influence was extensive. But although the Chavin appear to have done quite well, their culture disappeared by 200 B.C. following a century of town abandonments.

7. Achaemenid Empire (550 B.C. to 330 B.C.)

A coin from the Achaemenid Empire.

The Achaemenid Empire was one of the first Persian Empires that spanned large areas of modern-day Iran. It was arguably the largest and wealthiest empire of the ancient world, reaching across some 10.7 million square kilometers. The Achaemenid Empire, which is sometimes simply called the Persian Empire, was the entity involved in the Greco-Persian Wars, which are famous in Western history. It’s first ruler and founder, Cyrus the Great, is also responsible for freeing the Jews from the Babylonian Captivity.

During its height, the Achaemenid Empire ruled over the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Because it encompassed such a large area and many cultures, Achaemenidian art, religion, and even language were blends of many elements. However, the most dominant religion in the empire was Zoroastrianism, and the official language was Aramaic.

The Achaemenid Empire ruled in opulence for more than 200 years. But it was overthrown in just a few short years after the wars of Alexander the Great began. The regions of the Achaemenid Empire would become part of the Hellenistic State, which would eventually be overtaken by the rise of Rome.

6. Badarian Culture (4500 B.C. to 3250 B.C.)

You’ve heard of ancient Egypt, but you probably don’t know about the Badarians. The Badarians were the first people to introduce agriculture to Egypt, and they were the ancestors of the people who began the Egyptian empire. So far, scientists have found about 40 settlements and 600 graves that have been associated with the Badarian cultural tradition. From this evidence, archaeologists have discovered that Baderians grew plants, herded animals, and fished. They also buried their dead in elaborate, low cemeteries; the deceased were placed on mats, laid in shallow pits, and oriented to the south, with their heads facing west.

5. D’mt Kingdom (? 900 B.C. to 600 B.C.)

Ruins of the temple at Yeha, a city which could have been part of the D’mt Kingdom.

D’mt was a kingdom in modern day Ethiopia, dating somewhere near the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. Very little is known about the D’mt Kingdom, and archaeologists aren’t sure how it connects to the later Aksumite culture, which became prominent a few centuries later. The kingdom was based on agriculture, and there is evidence of irrigation systems. The Kingdom of D’mt could have also been the place where Ge’ez, an ancient Semitic language, was developed. Knowledge about D’mt remains murky, but it is an area of interest to scholars who work with the later empires of Ethiopia and Eritrea, which probably had some of their roots in this kingdom.

4. Gandhara (600 B.C. to A.D. 1021)

The Kingdom of Gandhara was a long reining civilization located in present-day Pakistan, Kashmir, and Afghanistan. The boundaries of the kingdom varied throughout its long existence. The kingdom was most prominent during the first centuries A.D, when Buddhist kings ruled.

Gandhara is known for its distinctive style of Buddhist art, which has Greek, Indian, Persian, and Syrian influences. The kingdom used a Prakrit, or dialect of Middle Indo-Aryan, for language; this language was commonly known as Gandhari. Gandhari was used to write the Gandharic Buddhist texts, which are the earliest Buddhist and Indian manuscripts discovered so far.

Gandhara flourished for centuries, keeping its name and local rulers while conquering empires came through. But when Mahmud of Ghazni conquered the kingdom in 1021, the name was lost. Gandhara was forgotten, or known only locally, for centuries. The British rediscovered the kingdom in the early 19th century, but it was not until the 20th century that much of the kingdom’s history was known.

3. Dorset Culture (500 B.C. to A.D. 1500)

Eskimo and Inuit peoples are commonly associated with the far upper reaches of North America, but there was another culture that predated both of these groups in most areas, especially in what is now eastern Canada. The origins of the Dorset people are not well understood, but it is known that by 500 B.C., their distinctive pottery and tools were made throughout Arctic Canada. Dorset people relied on sea creatures for food; they would hunt seals through the ice with harpoons. The Dorset people also made distinct masks and intricate carvings, both of which indicate a strong religious or shamanistic tradition.

Dorset people were once found in much of the arctic north of Canada, but they became more isolated on eastern, far north islands after the medieval warm period, which melted the ice and altered the Dorset’s food habits. Eventually, the culture became overtaken by the Inuits, who moved across the continent from Alaska.

2. Moche Culture (A.D. 100 to A.D. 800)

A Moche decapitator mural image from the Huaca de la Luna.

The Moche culture consisted of multiple groups of people who shared common styles of iconography and architecture in Peru. The Moche people lived primarily in the valleys of northern Peru, where they thrived in agriculture with a sophisticated system of irrigation. Anthropologists know a lot about the Moche from their art, which depicts many scenes from everyday life and some of ritual significance.

Based on the depictions in Moche art, human sacrifice seems to have been an important aspect of Moche culture. One place where sacrifice could have taken place was the Huaca del Sol, the central ritual temple built by the Moche civilization. This adobe building was the largest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas, but it was in large part destroyed when the Spanish looted it for gold in the 17th century. Near the Huaca del Sol sits the Huaca de la Luna, which remains more intact. This temple was definitely the site of human sacrifice; images inside it depict sacrificial victims, who were killed on the top of the temple and then hurled over the edge.

The Moche culture collapsed around A.D. 650, and it disappeared entirely by A.D. 800. No one knows for sure what happened to these people, who flourished for years. Many anthropologists suggest that a raiding tribe killed off many of the Moche. Even so, many remnants of the culture survived for generations in Peru.

1. Longshan Culture (3000 B.C. to 2000 B.C.)

An example of Longshan pottery.

The Longshan peoples lived around the Yellow River in what is now China, and they made a lot of progress toward more modern civilizations in eastern Asia. They were the first to form cities in China, and they were also some of the first peoples to harvest silk from silkworms. During the time of the Longshan, rice was a staple food and was obviously cultivated; before their time, rice was just beginning to be grown. Pottery making also reached new levels of skill during the Longshan cultural period. The Longshan used pottery wheels to create perfect vessels, which are commonly polished and black.

Based on some findings, anthropologists think the Longshan were believers in divination. They used cracked cattle bones to tell the future. One Longshan site is also believed to be an observatory, which could have been used for ancient astronomy. It might have been that Longshan people were interested in their potential future status; based on burial findings, it turns out that the Longshan maintained a highly stratified social system.

For their huge contributions to the Asian region, the Longshan were extremely important. They’re some of our lost ancestors that we should respect greatly.

10. Candomble

Candomble is the most African religion in Brazil and the oldest. It identifies Yoruba spirits with Catholic saints. Originally, the leaders of Brazilian faiths have been women, called mothers of the saint. They perform rituals such as animal sacrifice. They also watch over people who are possessed by various spirits.

9.Sikhsm

Sikhism is an Indian religion, Sikhs call the faith” The way of the Guru” All 10 human gurus that led the Sikhs inhibited one spirit. After the death of the 10^th guru the spirit transferred itself into sacred scripture of Sikhism. Sikhs practice their worship in a building called gurdwara. In the gurdwara a statue of Guru Granth is on an elevated platform with flowers and fanned. The Sikhs listen to and participate in singing from the Guru Granth. They observe the “five k’s”: They do not cut their hair, they carry combs, they wear special steel bracelets, they carry swords, and the wear a special kind of pants. Male Sikhs for the most part wear turbans over their hair. Since September 11, 2001, attacks Sikhs in the United States experienced discriminatory treatment and violence because some people wrongly associated their distinctive appearance with Osama bin Laden and Al-Qaeda.

8. Umbanda

Umbanda has elements from Christianity, African and native religions and believes in reincarnation. Umbanda believes in only one creator God and the cult of saints. They have adopted the creed in psychics as a way to contact spirits of deceased people. Also, the Umbanda religion rejects the witchcraft of Macumba and Quimbanda rituals such as animal sacrifice. Since mid-2004 381,000 Europeans study this religion.

7. Jainism

Jainism is a religious movement of the Jains and follows the religious path of Vardhamana Mahavira a prophet also known as the Jina, or “Victor”. Jina lived in the same time as Buddha. After Mahavira the Jains had numerous rulers. One ruler of the Jainism was Candragupta Maurya who fasted to death on a small hill overlooking a village. The monks and nuns take the five “great vows” pledging to stay away from injuring life, false speech, taking what is not given, unchastity, and appropriation. Although there is a sixth vow not taking food and drink at night. Today the Jains are small but influential prosperous group of 2,604,837 people (1981 census).

6. Zoroastrians

Zoroastrians is one of the most ancient living religions. The founder of Zoroastrian is Zarathushtra who historians think lived around the beginning of the first millennium BCE. It was the religion of Iran under the rule of the Iranian–speaking Aryan populations. The roots of Zoroastrianism can be found in eastern Iranian, tribal, and basically pastoral society. The religion originated around 1000 BCE and developed further under the first Persian Empire.

5. Quimbanda

In recent years, despite gaining a greater following among some middle class whites, it has begun to assert itself as a separate tradition from Umbanda. Rituals are concerned with necromancy,divination or preparation of amulets, potions or other devices intended to bring supernatural aid, to obtaining resources or to deal with other areas of life. Additionally, the spirit-entities of this cult provide advice to their followers to aid in resolving life’s problems.Since mid-2004 104,352,000 Asian peoples follow this religion.

4. The Dreaming

Aboriginal religion turns not on worship but on identification. The participation in and acting out of archetypal paradigms. One of the religious beliefs was that before animals and humans and plants were created, there were souls and they knew that they would become physical, but not when. They then knew the time was right and they all one by one all said “we will do our very best to try to help the one that takes care of us all. They all became animals and the plants. Then the last soul became the human. That is why Aboriginal people respect the environment and want to be with the nature because they are their friends.

3. Turtles and Tortoises

Now your probably saying to yourself isn’t a turtle the same as a tortoise, but it is not true. A turtle lives near water and can breath underwater on the other hand a tortoise stores their own water and walks on sand. Nevertheless, the religions that have the turtle and tortoise belief system do not distinguish from the two. The earth rests on the back of a turtle or tortoise is what some believe. North American Indians and South as well as Inner Asia have turtle Symbols. North American Indians believe that a turtle dived to the bottom of the ocean and got a little soil underneath its nails; when the turtle came to the surface, God scraped its nails and made a ball like small pebble. The ball of soil from the dirt underneath the turtles nails grew and became as large as the universe itself. In some versions of Inner Asia stories Mandishire (the bodhisattva Manjusri) transforms himself into a great turtle and supports the earth he has made on the surface of the waters. China has a symbol of the turtle as the entire universe; the dome shaped back represents the sky, and the belly stands for the earth.

2. Pentecostalism

Pentecostalism is a popular religion; a soccer stadium with 100,000 people came to here a priest named Marcelo Rossi speak about the Pentecostalism in November 1997. Pentecostal churches look down on other religions in Brazil because they think the violence and drugs are due to these other “evil” religions. The largest Pentecostal church in Brazil is the Igreja Universal do Reino de Dues, the Universal Church of God’s Kingdom. This new form of Catholicism may not count as a lesser known religion, although together with Afro-Brazilian religions and New Pentecostal movements, it helps make for religious life and diversity in Brazil. Since mid-2004 107 different countries follow Pentecostalism.

1.Spiritism

Spiritism is a religion that is not seen as a religion at all to its followers. Spiritism does not support formal adoration, require regular frequency or formal membership and says that they are not opposed to science, instead trying to harmonize with it. Mainly Christianity and Western traditions are the roots of Spiritism. Spiritists pray to God, who is seen as the ultimate cause, or source, of all things and beings Spiritism is based on a philosophical doctrine written by Léon Denizard Rivail. L`eon observed a series of phenomena that could be only attributed to incorporeal intelligence (spirits). A very popular movie Ghost with Demi Moore and Patrick Swayze was moderately similar to the teachings of Spiritism depicting an after life.

The majority of people don’t know anything about other countries’ leaders, especially those that aren’t leading major world powers. In fact, some people can’t even identify their own leaders. A 2007 survey of Americans found that only 69 percent could identify the Vice President of the United States, the second in command. In comparison, only 36 percent of surveyed people could name the president of Russia. And Russia is a major player in world politics.

The following list is composed of world leaders who are extremely important for various reasons. Some have been in power for years. Others have made impressive accomplishments during their tenure. Some are more infamous for charges of corruption. And still more have made huge contributions to the world economy. Despite their deserving status—and despite the fact that many are leaders of big countries—most average people around the world have never heard of these heads of state. Depending on where you live, you might have been exposed to some more than others. Read through this list to get acquainted with 10 of world’s least known presidents, prime ministers, and reigning monarchs.

10. Pratibha Patil

Pratibha Patil is the 12th president of India and the first woman to fill that role. She’s been in her position since July of 2007 and is a member of the leftist Indian National Congress, or INC. Patil has been a leader in India for much of her life, having served on various national committees and in parliamentary positions before becoming Governor of Rajasthan in 2004. She also made history as the first female governor in the state.

If you haven’t heard of Patil, it’s probably because her role is largely ceremonial. Most of the executive power in India falls to the prime minister, so, for the most part, Patil isn’t the one making the big decisions for the nation. If you have heard of her, it probably was in the form of scrutiny rather than praise. While Patil has undeniably done some good things as a leader, like starting up multiple charitable organizations, she has also been associated with much controversy. Some of her pet projects have been connected with fraud, and one enterprise was found to be a drug trafficking ring, albeit after her disassociation with it. She has also been criticized for using government funds to favor her family. But despite these allegations, Patil has been extremely successful in politics. In fact, she has never lost an election.

9. Gurbanguly Mälikgulyýewiç Berdimuhamedow

As Turkmenistan’s second president, Gurbanguly Berdimunhamedow follows in the shoes of Saparnurat Niyazov, the leader who deemed himself president for life and was regarded as one of the world’s most totalitarian dictators by many outside media sources. Since his assumption of the office in late 2006, Berdimuhamedow has yet to prove himself as eccentric and corrupt as his predecessor, who renamed the months of the year after his family members. But his road to the presidency did raise charges of corruption. After Niyazov died suddenly, Berdimuhamedow was made his successor. The rules about presidential elections were then changed suddenly so he could formally run for the office, which he did, winning a reported 89 percent of the popular vote. Many international groups have called this election obviously rigged.

Berdimihamedow’s party, the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan, is the only political group in the nation. All opposition parties have been quashed over the years. With no competition, the odds are that Berdimihamedow will remain in power for years to come. And that might have been the plan. There have been rumors that Berdimuhamedow is Niyazov’s illegitimate son.

8. Michaëlle Jean

Bet you didn’t think Canada would make the list of countries with obscure leaders. But this next person isn’t someone who’s often talked about. Michaëlle Jean is a prominent leader in Canada, though she’s not well known by people outside the country. Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper is the political face of Canada for most people, and Jean plays an important ceremonial role as the countries’ 27th Governor General. She’s officially the representative of the British monarch in Canada, which is a Commonwealth country. But since Queen Elizabeth’s role in Canada is minor these days, Jeans position as Governor General is more for show as well.

Jean was nominated for her role by former Prime Minister Paul Martin, and she took office in 2005. She is the first Canadian governor general of Caribbean origin and the third woman in that role. Before her appointment, Jean worked as a journalist for a variety of Canadian television programs in both French and English. She has studied at universities all over the world and speaks five languages fluently.

7. Beatrix of the Netherlands

Did you know about the Netherlands’ queen? The Dutch monarchy is one of the oldest in Europe, but its members aren’t often in the press. Therefore, you may not be aware that Queen Beatrix is the current monarch of the Netherlands, having been in power since 1980. In fact, Beatrix’s foreign obscurity is protected by law; there is a special Dutch law that prohibits the press from quoting Beatrix in publications. It’s meant to keep the queen from slipping up with unplanned comments, but the law actually serves to keep a lot of what Beatrix says off the newsstand. The Dutch monarchy is something of a spectacle in Northern Europe, but Beatrix and her family aren’t well known outside the area.

Like most European monarchs, Beatrix’s role is more ceremonial than political. In the Dutch constitution, the queen is granted much political authority, but in practice, most of the government work is left to the Dutch parliament. But although Beatrix’s power is minimal, she is a very important figurehead in Europe and deserves to be known throughout the world.

6. Zillur Rahman

Becoming president without any opposition seems strange in counties like the United States, where the nomination and campaign seasons take up the news for the greater part of two years. But there have been some presidents in the world who have been the only candidate for the position in an election. Bangladesh’s 19th president, Zillur Rahman, came to power in early 2009 after he was declared the winner of an election that he ran in unopposed. One-candidate elections seem ordinary enough in Bangladesh; Rahman’s predecessor also won the presidency in an uncontested race.

The presidency is Bangladesh is largely a ceremonial office, with most executive power in the country going to the prime minister. That setup suits Rahman well; he is 80 years old now and will be 85 at the end of his term.

5. John Atta Mills

John Atta Mills is the current president of Ghana, having been inaugurated in early 2009. His many accomplishments, both inside and out of the political world, make him well worth knowing.

Mills had an illustrious political career before becoming Ghana’s fourth president after a hard-fought, three-part election. In fact, he was the vice president of the country from 1997 to 2001. But it is his academic accomplishments that have made him most known throughout the world. Mills earned a Ph.D. in Law from the School of Oriental and African Studies in London in the 1970s, and after his studies, he was invited to Stanford Law School on a Fulbright Scholarship. Since then, Mills has been active as a professor. He has travelled all around the world delivering talks to young law students.

Mills is also an athlete; he once played for Ghana’s national hockey team and is still a veteran member of the group. As an active member of the academic and athletic worlds, Mills knows how to work hard to achieve his goals. His presidency may become another accomplishment on his list.

4. Ivo Sanader

Ivo Sanader is someone you should know for his unwavering service to his home county, Croatia. Sanader is Croatia’s prime minister and one of the country’s most popular politicians. He came into power in late 2003 and serves as head of government, officially sharing leadership duties with the president. Sanader’s main goal in his position is to get Croatia accepted into the European Union, a feat which many people consider likely to happen soon.

Sanader is well loved and considered a strong leader, but he has been the focus of some controversy. Most notably, he was the topic of extensive tabloid drama after it was reported that he owned more than €150,000 worth of watches. Sanader never claimed the watches among his assets. Still, most Croatians have forgiven Sanader for the watch mishap, preferring to focus on his many strong leadership skills.

3. Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi

Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi is the prime minister of Samoa, and he’s been quite a character since his 1998 ascension to the office. Malielegaoi was the first Samoan ever to get a master’s degree, which he was awarded in the field of economics in 1980. He’s been a very vocal Pacific leader during his time as prime minister, making some of the most vehement objections to the Fijian leader, Commodore Frank Bainimarama, who came to power after a coup d’etat. But it’s not Malielegaoi’s international politics that have made him famous; it’s his less important antics that have gotten the most attention. His government passed legislation to switch Samoan driving from the left side to the right. He said his reasoning was linked to the fight against global warming.

Malielegaoi was also the first Samoan to compete for his country at an international, multi-sport event. In 2007, he won the silver medal for team target archery at the South Pacific Games. He took up the sport just five months prior to the event. So for his outspoken political personality and his eccentric ways, Maliegaoi deserves to be on the world’s radar.

2. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono

As the sixth president of Indonesia, Susilo Yudhoyono is the most powerful person in the Pacific country. He’s been in power since 2004 and is a retired military general. Yudhoyono has made great progress during his time in office, facilitating a free trade agreement between Indonesia and Japan and expanding the Indonesian education and healthcare systems. He’s a true reformer.

Interestingly, Yudhoyono received his Ph.D. in agriculture just two days before winning the presidency in a greatly publicized runoff. He’s also made great strides in dealing with Suharto, the former Indonesian president who was in power for more than 30 years. Before Suharto’s death, Yudhoyono helped the Indonesian people come to terms with this former ruler, who was regarded with mixed feelings.

“Yudhoyono” is not the prime minister’s family name, although it is the name he is referred to outside of Indonesia. In the country, he is known by his first name, “Susilo.” Yudhoyono was the name he chose to be called in his early military days. Regardless of what you call him, keep Indonesia’s leader in sight—he’s going places.

1. Hamad bin Jassin bin Jaber al Thani

His Highness Sheikh Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber Al Thani is a big deal. He’s a member of the royal family of Qatar and currently serves as the country’s prime minister and foreign minister. He’s the cousin to the emir—or supreme ruler—of the government, and he played a role in overthrowing his uncle, the former emir, in 1995.

Prime Minister Hamad plays a huge role in the global economy. He’s the richest man in Qatar and the fifth richest man in the world. He has holdings in many foreign businesses and is said to have close ties to the United States government. He also serves on the International Advisory Council of the Brookings Institute. So while you may not pay attention to the secondary leaders in the Middle East, Prime Minister Hamad is someone worth knowing about. With his massive wealth and influence, you never know what he’ll be doing next.

Throughout history, there have been a handful of folks who have excelled in the art of comedy. Most of these figures are relatively obscure today, but in their heyday, they were well known as the funny guys in town. These days, our modern sensibilities may shrug off their comedy as unfunny or just plain weird. All the same, these comics should be considered masters. Not only were they genuinely funny (or sarcastic), they also influenced the future of comedy as we know it today. Read over the following list to learn more about the best comedians from the past, and keep in mind that this list does not include any greats who are still living.

10. The Ancient Greeks

Credit must be given to the Greeks for the invention of the comedy genre, at least in the Western tradition. Comedy was one of two great dramatic forms in Greece, the other being tragedy. The exact origins of comedy in Greece are unknown, but by about 500 B.C., the plays had become a part of the Greek lifestyle. There were undoubtedly many great comics throughout the time the Greek culture flourished, but only a few comedians’ plays have survived.
Aristophanes and Menander are two or the most known Greek comics simply because their work has been best preserved.

Later scholars divided Greek comedy into three periods—Old Comedy, Middle, and New. Old Comedy is known today as the time of Aristophanes. It was dominated by political satire and sexual innuendos, and its influence can still be felt today in the comic antics of this nature. Middle comedy was not well preserved, but seems to have been a time of increased literariness in the field. Political humor became less pronounced during the middle period. Finally, New Comedy took advantage of situational humor—when things do go according to plan—and was a huge influence for later Western literature.

Modern readers might not find Greek comedy at all funny, but at the time, it was serious entertainment. So for their humor—even if outdated—and their legacy, Greek comedians deserve a place among history’s all-time best funny guys.

9. Frank Fay (1897-1961)

You might not have heard of him, but most people agree that American Frank Fay was the founder of stand-up comedy as we know it today, a type of entertainment that has since become the ultimate venue for comedians. As the master of ceremonies at an early Broadway theater, Fay was one of the first comedians to make spontaneous jokes directly to the audience. Never before had a funnyman acted without the “screen” of another player. Later comic greats, like Jack Benny, were heavily influenced by Fay’s spur-of-the-moment style of comedy. Throughout the late teens and early 1920s, Fay was vaudeville’s stand-up comedy king.

Unfortunately, Fay’s career tanked after he tried to transition to films. He has a few early successes singing in comedic musicals, but never became a star of the silver screen. Still, his early influence in the stand-up realm leave him deserving of recognition.

8. Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)

Jonathan Swift was the king of satire.

Jonathan Swift is considered by many to be the premier satirist of the English language. His deft mocking of the social problems of 18th-century Ireland and England earned him a reputation as a master comedian, although one who appealed to a more intellectual crowd. Swift’s work is all funny, but it had a purpose beyond simply entertainment; he was out to change the world through comedy. His work is both extremely humorous and intensely critical of society, and he hoped that drawing attention to Europe’s problems through satire would help make a difference.

Swift is most known for Gulliver’s Travels, a satirical novel about human nature, and A Modest Proposal, a pamphlet that mockingly suggests eating children will solve Ireland’s problems. Both of these works continue to be read to this day, and they’re both still entertaining.

7. Emmett Kelly (1898-1979)

Emmett Kelly’s son, Emmett Jr., took on the role of hobo clown like his father.

Emmett Kelly was an American circus performer who first created the now-iconic hobo clown character that now is a part of every circus troupe. Kelly began his life in the circus as a trapeze artist, but moved to clowning full time in 1931. At first, he was a traditional white-face clown, performing slapstick comedic routines for a few laughs. But Kelly had dreams of beginning something new in the clown world. He sketched out a hobo character who he named “Weary Willie,” based on a compendium of Depression-era homeless people.
Willie was a sad little man who would follow the circus looking for work and creating mischief. At first, the circus master who directed Kelly wouldn’t allow him to act as Weary Willie, but eventually, he gave in. Kelly performed as Willie with the Ringling Brothers Circus from 1942-1956, and the act was very popular from its beginning.

Weary Willie was a funny clown, but he was also sad. As part of his act, Kelly (as Willie) would often stay behind the circus performers, trying to “clean up” the spotlights on the floor. The pitiable-yet-funny style of clowning was revolutionary at the time, and it has since become popular with circuses everywhere. Hobo clowns and other similar types are now the most popular clowns in American circus troupes.

6. Voltaire (1694-1778)

Voltaire was famous for his wit.

Voltaire was an Enlightenment French thinker who was famous for his biting wit. Born Francois-Marie Arouet, he took the pen name “Voltaire” after being incarcerated in the Bastille. He wrote works in practically every literary genre over his lifetime, including several plays and essays and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets.

Voltaire often used humor in the form of satire to criticize French institutions and the Catholic Church. Because of his outspoken, scathing perception of these powerful entities, he was not very well liked in his day. But Voltaire’s ideas helped set the foundations for both the French and American Revolutions. And along the way, he wrote some pretty funny one-liners too. Candide is probably the most known showcase of his wit; that book attacks optimism through a laughable situational satire. Although modern readers might not care for Voltaire’s humor, like Jonathan Swift he paved the way for later satirical writers.

5. Mark Twain (1835-1910)

Samuel Clemens, better known by his pen name Mark Twain, is lauded as one of the best novelists ever. But he was also a skilled humorist. Twain’s early writings were dominated by humor, and his slightly edgy wit can be seen threaded through all of his later work as well. Some critics regard Huckleberry Finn as not only a masterpiece of a novel, but also a stunning work comedy. And as a master of dialects, Twain’s jokes were often subtly poking fun at colloquial ways of life.

Today, Twain is recognized as a pioneer in American humor. Many comedy awards are given in his honor every year, the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor being one of them.

4. Ben Jonson (1572-1637)

Ben Jonson was a master playwright of comedies.

Playwright Ben Jonson was a contem

porary of Shakespeare, and although he is not well known today, during his time he was arguably just as popular as his now more famous counterpart. Unlike Shakespeare, whose tragedies are considered most masterful, Jonson was king of the comedy. And Jonson’s comedies weren’t just sappy love stories with happy endings. They were filled with slapstick-style, sometimes vulgar humor that appealed to ordinary people. Jonson is best known for his city comedies like Volpone and The Alchemist, which are satirical looks at life in the emerging Renaissance cities.

Jonson’s comic style was appreciated during his lifetime, but its vulgar and farcical nature declined in popularity in the Victorian era. Still, he was a huge influence on later playwrights and poets in London. In recent years, many of Jonson’s plays have been revived for new audiences. Just like is his time, they’ve gotten big laughs.

3. The Three Stooges

No one did slapstick like the Three Stooges. Their act is still one of the most recognized comedy routines in history, made famous through short films and the television shows that are still rerun today. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the Three Stooges thrilled audiences with their absurd storylines and spot-on one-liners.

Although Larry, Moe, and Curly are best known as the troublesome threesome, there were, in fact, eight stooges who performed at different times. Moe Howard and Larry Fine (whose real names were Harry Moses Horowitz and Louis Feinburg) stuck with the Stooges throughout their existence, but multiple actors played the third character. The two most famous third Stooges were Curly Howard and Shemp Howard, both brothers of Moe. It was the original trio of Larry, Moe, and Curly, however, who made the Three Stooges part of comedy history.

Nowadays, the Stooge enterprise still enjoys rampant popularity. DVD collections of the Three Stooges television shows and movies have been released, and, in 2004, a Stoogeum was built commemorating the act in Spring House, Pennsylvania. And the act will live on, albeit with different actors; a new Stooge film is expected to be released in 2010.

2. Lucille Ball (1911-1989)

I Love Lucy remains one of the best-love comedies on television.

Lucille Ball created a television dynasty with her signature style of face-making, wily comedy. She had one of the longest reigning Hollywood careers ever, starring in four sitcoms over 30 years. Without a doubt, I Love Lucy is what she’s most known for today, and for good reason. The show, which also starred Ball’s then-husband Desi Arnaz, was the top-rated TV program for the majority of its run from 1951 to 1960. And it got big laughs. Filmed in front of a live audience, I Love Lucy’s laugh tracks were sometimes so long that they had to be edited out. She was truly one of the funniest comics every to perform.

In addition to Ball’s three other television series, she also starred in multiple films and a Broadway play, Wildcat, which received much critical acclaim. Ball received many awards for her life work in comedy, including some posthumous recognitions like the Presidential Medal of Freedom, which was given to her after her death in 1989.

To this day, I Love Lucy continues to be successful in syndication. And although she died nearly 20 years ago, Ball remains one of the most recognizable television personalities around. She deserves her place and one of comedy’s most influential stars.

1. Charlie Chaplin (1889-1977)

Charlie Chaplin paved the way for comedy to hit the big screen.

Charlie Chaplin was an English star of comedy. He is best known for his silent comedy routines from the films of the 1920s, but he continued to act, direct, produce, and compose until late in his lifetime. In many ways, Chaplin was the biggest star of his day. He continues to be lauded as one of Hollywood’s greatest actors, and his work in comedy is what makes him most famous.

Chaplin’s signature character was “The Tramp,” a hobo with exceptional manners who winds up in slapstick-comedy situations. The character was a hallmark of the silent era of film. But not all of Chaplin’s films included the Tramp character, and he was equally funny out of that icon’s baggy pants and bowler hat. Still, the bumbling, ridiculous Tramp character continues to thrill audiences and remains the most lasting memory of Chaplin’s comedy.

Chaplin’s comedic legacy in film opened doors for the big-screen comedy that’s so popular today. He made comedy a medium for the big screen, and for that, he is history’s most influential comedian.

With all the talk that surrounded Heath Ledger’s recent posthumous Oscar win, it might seem like awards given after death are nothing to get excited about. However, the truth is they’re relatively rare, at least for big awards that get a lot of attention. Some awards, such as those honoring bravery in combat, are more likely than others to offer posthumous awards. But many of the most recognized awards do not allow posthumous bestowal at all. The Nobel Prizes, for example, aren’t supposed to be given to anyone not living. And honors like knighthood can never be bestowed on someone after death.

The following list includes 10 examples of noteworthy posthumous awards. These awards were either a rare exception to the no-posthumous-awards rule or were some of only a few such recognitions in recent times. Some are examples of great courage. And a few awards on the list were the beginnings of a lucrative career, which got its start only after death. Read on to learn more about these sometimes sentimental, sometimes commemorative, and always recognizable posthumous awards.

10. Larry Russell (1913-1954)

Russell one an Academy Award 17 years after his death for his work on the film Limelight.

Composer Larry Russell won the 1972 Academy Award for Best Musical Score for his work on the film Limelight. But Russell couldn’t accept the honor because he had already been dead for 17 years when it was given! In fact, the movie was completed in 1952, but it had been blacklisted in Los Angeles since the time of its release because of doubts about Charlie Chaplin, who was the film’s producer, director, and star. Chaplin was thought to have Communist leanings, and even though Limelight was his least political film of the period, it was banned in many American cities. It was not until 1972 that the film was shown in Los Angeles, where the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences decides on its annual awards. By that time, Russell had already died thinking his work would never be appreciated with a major award.

Limelight received three Oscars in 1972, but Russell’s award was the most interesting. The 17-year gap between Russell’s death and his award makes him unique among winners; it is the longest time to have ever passed between a recipient’s death and his presentation of the Oscar. But beyond that, there was also controversy surrounding his getting the Oscar nod at all. Some people have said that Russell wasn’t the person responsible for Limelight’s score; claims have been made that Russell Garcia should have won. But whether he deserved it or not, Russell’s Academy Award made history.

9. Bryan Budd (1977-2006)

Bryan Budd was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.

Some awards are rare because they honor only the most amazing acts of bravery. Military honors for gallant acts fall into this category. And the Victoria Cross, the British Commonwealth’s highest award, is one of the rarest and most respected military award given.

In 2006, Corporal Bryan Budd was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. His award was the most recent British example of the medal given to a serviceman, and only the 13th such award since World War II. Budd was killed in action in Afghanistan after subjecting himself to enemy fire so his section could escape.

Corporal Budd was a paratrooper for the British Army. He was awarded the VC not only for his gallant action on the day of his death, but also for a previous incident, in which he took heavy fire so a wounded soldier could be saved. Sadly, Budd was due to return home to his family just five days after his death.  His brave actions were commemorated worldwide and were extremely deserving of such a rare honor, the Victoria Cross.

8. Teddy Roosevelt (1858-1919)

Teddy Roosevelt was awarded the Medal of Honor more than 90 years after his death.

The 26th president of the United States was also a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the highest military award in the nation. But he didn’t receive the award until more than 90 years after his death and more than 100 years after the incident that warranted it. It all started when Roosevelt resigned from his post at the U.S. Navy Department to volunteer for the Spanish-American War in 1898. He enlisted the help of his friends and a few cowboys to form the First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, more popularly known as the Rough Riders. Roosevelt became the leader of the regiment after a series of promotions.

Roosevelt led the Rough Riders to their famous charges up Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill on July 1, 1898. He began the charges without any orders from his superiors, putting himself in grave danger over the course of the day. Soon after the incident, Roosevelt was nominated for the Medal of Honor, but was turned down for the award, probably because of some negative comments about the conditions of the war that he wrote in a letter.

In 1997, almost 100 years following Roosevelt’s brave stand in Cuba, Congressman Rick Lazio submitted a request that Roosevelt be reconsidered for the honor. It was approved, and the former president was posthumously recognized with the medal in 2001. He is the only U.S. president to have ever received the award.

7. Unknown Soldiers

The Tomb of the Unknowns in the United States is just one of many memorials to unidentified soldiers around the world.

All around the world, there are tombs of soldiers whose remains have never been identified. These “unknowns,” as they are often called, have been given laid to rest in graves that have come to be some of the most revered monuments of war. The United States, United Kingdom, France, Belgium, and Italy all have created tombs for unidentified soldiers who died in combat, and all of these soldiers have been posthumously presented with the U.S. Medal of Honor.  The U.S. Unknown Soldiers were reciprocally awarded the Victoria Cross and other service honors from foreign nations.

With so many prestigious service awards, the Unknown Soldiers of the world are the most decorated people around. And all of their awards were awarded after death.

6. William Horning (1904-1959)

William Horning was the art director for Gigi.

William Horning is the only person to win two consecutive, posthumous Academy Awards. In 1959, he won for the first time for his work as the art director of Gigi, the film that went on to win best picture. That award came just over one month after Horning’s death. The following year, Horning received another two Oscar nominations, one for his work on North by Northwest, and another for art direction with Ben Hur. Horning won with Ben Hur, and become the first person to ever receive two Oscars after death.

5. William Vickrey (1914-1996)

William Vickrey was one of three people to be presented with the Nobel Prize posthumously.

Canadian professor William Vickrey is one of three people to have been presented a Nobel Prize after death, and the only person to achieve such a thing since the committee’s rules about posthumous awards were made stricter after 1974. The committees selecting Nobel Prize winners are careful to recognize only living contributors to world economics, physics, chemistry, literature, and peace, a policy which has drawn much criticism over the years. The no-posthumous rules have prevented some deserving people, like Mahatma Ghandi, from ever receiving an award.

Since awards were first presented in 1901, only living people have even been considered; deceased nominees were disqualified automatically. It used to be that people who died after they were nominated could win the award, which happened in two instances. But in 1974, the Nobel committee changed the rules. Now, recipients not only have to be living upon nomination, but they must also remain alive when the award is announced. William Vickrey was alive when he was announced as the winner of the economics award in October of 1996, but he died just three days later. Accordingly, he wasn’t living when the award was presented that December. He is the only posthumous award winner since the rules tightened.

4. Sean Taylor (1983-2007)

Sean Taylor was made a Pro Bowler after his death.

Washington Redskin’s safety Sean Taylor was the first football player to be selected posthumously for the National Football League’s Pro Bowl, and honor which was presented to him in 2007. Taylor was murdered in his Miami home of November 27, 2007 at just 24 years old. An armed intruder shot Taylor in the leg while he was sleeping. Although he was rushed to the hospital, the wound in Taylor’s femoral artery proved to be too much. He died, prompting an onslaught of sympathy and outrage from his fellow athletes and many fans.

Taylor was awarded with his second Pro Bowl berth less than a month after his death. His posthumous selection was the first time any American athlete in any sport had been nominated to an all-star team after death since hockey player Pelle Lindbergh did so in 1986.

3. Heath Ledger (1979-2008)

Heath Ledger won multiple awards after his untimely death.

No list of after-death award recipients would be complete without Heath Ledger. Ledger made headlines when he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor at the 2009 ceremony. He was only the second person in history to win a posthumous Oscar for acting, joining fellow Australian actor Robert Finch.

Ledger died in January of 2008, shortly after he finished filming for The Dark Knight, in which he played the Joker. The film wasn’t released until summer, and wasn’t nominated for the Academy Awards until the next year. The early release of the movie and Ledger’s untimely death led many to believe he would be passed over for the prize, but they were proven wrong.

Ledger’s captivating performance earned him several other posthumous awards, including a 2008 Los Angeles Film Critics Circle Award, a 2009 Golden Globe Award, a British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) Award, and a Best Actor International Award from the Australian Film Institute, which was the first posthumous award given by that group. Because of his Oscar win and many other posthumous awards, Ledger has been one of the most lauded actors ever.

2. George Carlin (1937-2008)

George Carlin was honored with the Mark Twain Prize after his death.

George Carlin was the first person to ever be awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor after death. The prize is the most prestigious for comedy in the United States, presented annually by The Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. The Mark Twain Prize honors comedians who have made a significant contribution to the field, and winners are honored by their peers in a long ceremony the night they receive the award.

Carlin died just four days after the Kennedy Center announced he would win the 2008 prize, in June of 2008. At first, the Kennedy Center didn’t know whether to proceed with the ceremony. But after taking to Carlin’s family, they decided to go ahead. There were no major changes to the presentation format, except that Carlin’s family received the award in his place.

1. John Kennedy Toole (1937-1969)

John Kennedy Toole received major acclaim, including the Pulitzer Prize, for his novel, A Confederacy of Dunces. Toole’s abysmal reception during his lifetime is part of what drove him to commit suicide. He had submitted the manuscript of his novel to Simon and Schuster, but it was rejected when the publishers commented that it was pointless.

Toole spent much of his life in New Orleans, living with his overbearing, overprotective mother, Thelma. He left the city to pursue his studies, but was ultimately drafted and returned home after his military service. Toole battled with depression all his life, a disorder that was compounded by the unfavorable reception of his writing. He left home and committed suicide in 1969.

Ten years after Toole’s death, his mother encouraged writer Walker Percy to look over the manuscript of Dunces. Percy loved the book and helped get it published. The novel was a huge success, and Toole was posthumously awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1981. Since then, Dunces has been translated into 18 languages and sold more than 1.5 million copies. Toole’s book continues to be popular to this day. For his huge success after death, he tops the list of winners of posthumous awards.

Advertising icons are the cartoons, animals, or inanimate objects that are the faces of brands. They sell their company’s products and, sometimes, provide a good deal of entertainment along the way. Usually, these silly characters appear on packaging labels, commercials, and billboards, promoting their goods with trademark tag lines. But the sell, sell, sell mentality keeps making the ad icons cuter, funnier, more entertaining, and, in many ways, more annoying. Sometimes, it just seems like too much. Why spend all that energy just getting people to buy?

Fortunately, there are a few companies who have harnessed the power of their ad icons for the greater good. These mascots do more than just lure customers to the cash register. A few of them actually make a difference for real people through community involvement, sending powerful messages to kids, and even “authoring” influential books related to their brands. Check out the following list of 10 such ad icons that have done more than sell.

10. The Burger King

Burger King’s mascot, the king, has taken has taken many forms since his birth in 1955. At first, the king was a simply drawn cartoon character who was often found sitting atop a Whopper sandwich. In recent years, however, the Burger King has been depicted as a life-size costumed character. He frequently dances and plays pranks on people in his most recent incarnation and the smiling, plastic-faced king, which was launched in 2003.

Okay, so the Burger King hasn’t given back much to the community. But his parent company, Burger King (the restaurant), is a frequent supporter of local events and big-time charities worldwide. And the Burger King himself has made his mark beyond simply selling fast food. He’s been featured in a variety of video games, made an appearance on an episode of The Simpsons, and even appeared alongside football players in NFL commercials. The King is also rumored to be the star of an upcoming feature-length film. So although the King himself hasn’t contributed to charities or given life-changing messages, he has become an entertainment icon outside of the realm of his restaurant.

9. The Coppertone Girl

Coppertone is the brand name for an American sunscreen, and its mascot, the Coppertone Girl with her puppy, is one of the most recognizable images in pop culture. The picture shows a cartoon blond toddler with tan lines, which are revealed when the puppy pulls down her bathing suit bottoms. Unlike some icons, the Coppertone Girl doesn’t make cameos at events or host her own charities. But she did make a difference in the world all the same. The Coppertone Girl helped make Jodie Foster famous.

Foster’s first acting gig was an appearance as the Coppertone Girl on a commercial when she was three years old. She has since become one of Hollywood’s most esteemed actresses. We can’t credit Coppertone with all of her fame, but her appearance as the Coppertone Girl surely helped her out in her early days. Coppertone also helped a young model get her start in the 1990s, when it sponsored a pageant to find the next Coppertone Girl. The winner was featured on billboards and ads for the sunscreen the following year.

8. The California Raisins

A group of walking, talking clay grapes, the California Raisins were once one of the biggest pop phenomena to hit the market. And it was all a fluke. The Raisins were originally created by the California Raisin Advisory Board as a last resort for a commercial idea. They were meant to be part of a short ad spot to sell raisins, singing a funny parody of Marvin Gaye’s “I Heard It through the Grapevine.” No one knew how popular the Raisins would become. After their debut in 1986, the California Raisins went on to star in two TV shows and released four albums. They also were featured in a cartoon series and were recreated in numerous toys and games.

The Raisins made the big shift from ad icon to cultural icon, and that’s why they’ve made a big difference. At the height of their success, most people didn’t associate the California Raisins with the Raisin Advisory Board, but they probably still sold more raisins in the long run. The Raisins haven’t been seen officially since 2001, when Hardee’s restaurants released a series of figurines to promote a new product.

7. McGruff the Crime Dog

McGruff the Crime Dog is the advertising icon for the National Crime Prevention Council in the United States. He’s used by American police departments for getting across messages about crime prevention to kids, and his trademark catch phrase is, “Take a bite out of crime.” McGruff’s whole reason for creation was to help reduce criminal activity, and he’s made a big difference since his debut in 1980. Currently, he gets involved with kids in schools as the spokes-dog for anti-crime programs; he also stars in commercials and occasionally appears in costume at police stations.
One of the biggest contributions of this ad icon was the creation of the McGruff House system, which began in 1982. McGruff Houses are safe havens for kids who feel threatened at home. Currently, there are 700 McGruff Houses in the United States, and the Crime Dog lends his image to all of them.

6. Buzz

Buzz, also known as Buzzbee, is the honeybee mascot of Honey Nut Cheerios, the breakfast cereal made by General Mills. He’s been around since 1978, when the cereal was first spun off from original Cheerios. The supersized, talking bee’s main job is to sell his cereal to kids, which he does in regular commercials that are featured in prime Saturday-morning-cartoon time slots. But Buzz also helps kids learn to spell. He’s the star of the board game called “Honey Nut Cheerios Spelling Bee,” a trivia game that simulates a classic spelling competition. He’s also been used to increase interest in balanced eating habit. In recent years, Buzz has been promoting good health for families. He’s usually found quoting the health benefits of Honey Nut Cheerios on the cereal’s boxes.

5. The AFLAC Duck

That annoying white duck that’s featured on AFLAC commercials was created to give the insurance company more of a presence in the public mind. The nameless duck has become famous since his 1999 debut as the mascot of AFLAC, an insurance giant. When the duck was created, AFLAC was a large, successful company that no one had ever heard of. The duck’s done a good job of increasing AFLAC’s visibility (and its sales) through regular TV commercials, some of which feature celebrities.

Like most advertising icons, the duck’s main purpose is to sell. But he’s got another end in mind too—the AFLAC duck actually helps fight cancer. His popularity prompted AFLAC to created plush dolls in the duck’s likeness. The AFLAC ducks are sold at Macy’s stores and online, and proceeds benefit the AFLAC Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service at Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta. Since 2001, the AFLAC Duck has raised almost $2 million to fight cancer. Now that’s impressive.

4. The Chick-fil-A Cows

Chick-fil-A’s stubborn bovines support the restaurant by encouraging consumers to “EAT MORE CHIKIN.” The cows often wear signs with this message, and they can be seen on billboards and in front of the many restaurants. They were created in 1994, and since then they have become very popular figures. They even have their own annual calendar!

Besides providing comic relief and smart advertising, the Chick-fil-A Cows actually do a world of good deeds. They appear at many charity events sponsored by the restaurant chain. One of their most prominent community service appearances is at the yearly Chick-fil-A Classic, a basketball game featuring some of the best high school players in the country. During the game, the cows often present trophies to the featured players and checks to the restaurant’s charity groups.

3. Smokey Bear

As the mascot of the United States Forest Service, Smoky Bear’s job is to help prevent forest fires. Since his creation in 1944, Smokey has been seen in National Forests throughout the country with his signature saying, “Only you can prevent forest fires.”

Like McGruff, everything Smokey does is meant to help the community. He’s been featured in numerous ad campaigns aimed at preventing fires. But despite Smokey’s good intentions, he has still managed to become a pop culture icon and sell a few products. In the 1950s, he had his own band, the Sons of the Pioneers, which was frequently featured on radio programs. The first of many Smokey Bear doll s was released in 1952, and since then there have been countless Smokey figures, toys, and books available for sale. Smokey was even given his own zip code in 1964 because so many children wanted to join his junior forest ranger club.

In the end, Smokey has made a big impact despite his becoming a cultural icon. All of the proceeds from sales of Smokey products have gone to forest fire educational programs. So although Smokey sells, he does it with the greater good in mind.

2. Morris the Cat

You’ve probably seen lots of cats grace the labels of cat food containers, but one is particularly special. That’s Morris the Cat, and he is the mascot for the 9Lives brand of cat food. Since the 1970s, the stout orange tabby has been famously finicky in his food choices. In television commercials, he always claims to eat nothing by 9Lives brand, turning up his nose at the other brands that are given to him. In fact, every can of 9Lives features a picture of the cat and is “signed” by Morris himself.

Morris has become a very well-known icon in the 30 plus years of his advertising tenure—he even starred in Shamus, a movie with Burt Reynolds—but it’s his philanthropy that has made Morris truly stand out from the pack of brand ambassadors. He has become the “spokescat” for animal adoption campaigns and pet health, having “authored” three books on the subjects. He’s also regularly used to promote pet adoptions at local animal shelters. There have been multiple Morrises over the years, but one overriding, humane message that cats need to be treated fairly. So although Morris star power started with his picky preference of 9Lives, he now uses his popularity to do good things. Way to go, Morris!

1. Ronald McDonald

Hands down, the most community-service oriented ad icon for a large corporation is Ronald McDonald, the familiar clown who represents McDonald’s restaurants globally. Ronald McDonald made his first appearance in 1963 on television commercials for the restaurant. Since then, he has appeared in countless TV commercials and has even starred in a few direct-to-video animated films. Kids meals at the restaurant are covered Ronald depictions. Also, a statue of Ronald welcomes guests to each McDonald’s restaurant worldwide. All this exposure has paid off. One study shows that Ronald McDonald is the second most recognized figure in the world, following only Santa Claus.

With all his publicity, Ronald McDonald sells a lot of burgers. Billions every year, in fact. But he does a lot more than convince people to buy a Happy Meal. The clown also is used to represent McDonald’s’ many charitable operations. In fact, his name and image markets the Ronald McDonald House Charities, a group of 271 organizations that provide free or reduced lodging to parents of children who are hospitalized. There are Ronald McDonald Houses all over the world. Ronald McDonald also takes it upon himself to visit sick children in hospitals. With his commitment to kids, Ronald McDonald makes the most difference of any advertising icon. Bravo, Ronald. Job well done.

Unfortunately, there have been some not-so-ancient extinctions that we really should regret happening. Most of the species that have gone kaput in recent history have met their doom at human hands. And although, at the time, we thought we could do without these creatures, many of them could have helped us, or at least provided us with an interesting spectacle. The following 10 animals are all species that have died out in recent recorded history. And they’re all creatures that, for one reason or another, we should miss.

10. Dodo Bird

Dodos became extinct in the late 17^th century.

The dodo has become the symbol for species brought to extinction by human hands, and it must be included on any list dealing with the subject. Even if only for its entertainment value, the dodo is a bird that we should regret losing. Standing one meter tall with its characteristic hooked beak, tiny wings, and ruffled tail, the dodo was unlike any other bird known to man. It lived on the island of Mauritius, where it grew up to 50 pounds. Needless to say, this oddly shaped avian couldn’t fly; it nested on the ground and ate fruits and nuts.

Dodos didn’t have any natural predators on the island of Mauritius, so they thrived there until the arrival of humans. When people first settled the island, they didn’t hunt the birds often, but they did bring predators with them. The cats, dogs, and pigs that accompanied people to Mauritius killed the birds and destroyed their nests. Also, people gradually annihilated the forests where the dodos lived, making it hard for them to find protected nesting areas and appropriate food sources. About a century after humans first arrived on Mauritius, dodos died out. The exact date of their extinction is unknown, but it was likely before the year 1700.

9. Falkland Islands Wolf

The Falkland Island wolf became extinct in 1876

This species was the only native land mammal on the Falkland Islands and may have once been a companion animal to humans. Nevertheless, it was wiped out by humans in 1876. The Falkland Islands wolf is the only known canid species to have become extinct in historical times. The wolf was also known as the Warrah, a term based on a corruption of the native term for it. Sometimes, it is referred to as the Falkland Islands dog or fox too.

Darwin wrote about the wolf in his book, The Voyage of the Beagle. He commented that the species would probably be wiped out in a few years; at the time of his visit to the Falkland Islands, the numbers of the wolf had already dwindled. It was thought to be a threat to farmer’s sheep population, so it was often shot on sight. But other reports claim that the wolf was generally a docile animal that kept to itself and fed on birds and insects. Darwin even called it “tame.” So it seems like the wolf was destroyed for no good reason at all.

8. Steller’s Sea Cow

Steller’s sea cow was wiped out in 1768.

This large aquatic mammal was once a source of food and raw materials for many people living in the Northern Pacific region. Unfortunately, overhunting forced the species into extinction in 1768. Sea cows were first officially discovered by the German naturalist Georg Steller in 1741, although they had been a part of indigenous people’s way of life for perhaps thousands of years. Steller was traveling with the explorer Vitus Bering when he spotted a group of the cows near the Commander Islands. He was fascinated by them, and wrote about them in his journal. Fossil records show that at one time the animals lived all along the North Pacific coast, reaching as far south as Japan and California.

Sea cows were an important part of many native people’s lives. In addition to being eaten for food, sea cows’ skin was used to make durable boats. Also, their thick subcutaneous layer of fat made an ideal, odorless fuel. The regular hunting of the cows, however, reduced their numbers over time. And after Steller made them known to the European world, poachers quickly killed off the surviving herds.

Steller’s sea cows looked like a cross between a manatee and a seal, but they were much bigger than both these animals. Stretching 27 feet long and reaching estimated weights of up to 10 tons, sea cows were monstrosities in the water. Their characteristic whale-like tails and stumpy “arms” also set them apart from other water mammals. But despite their size and oddities, they were docile creatures, easy to track and kill. The cows couldn’t entirely submerge in the water and they usually traveled in groups, leaving trails of uprooted sea kelp. It wasn’t difficult for hunters to find them and, over time, kill them off to the point of extinction.

7. Quagga

Quaggas died out in the late 1800s

The quagga is a subspecies of zebra that was once found in great numbers throughout the dry areas of South Africa. It was something of an oddity, with markings like an ordinary zebra on the front part of its body and a rear that was entirely brown. The quagga was hunted into extinction in the 1870s, before it was even identified as separate from ordinary zebras. Quaggas were ruthlessly killed for their meat and hides and were also considered competition for livestock, who shared feeding areas.

Quaggas were the first extinct animals to have their DNA analyzed; after this was done, the very close relationship between quaggas and zebras was discovered. There is now hope that quaggas could be “resurrected,” in a sense, by breeding horses and zebras together. Of course, a horse-zebra hybrid wouldn’t be a true quagga, but the markings could be made to look similar.

6. Bali Tiger

Around 1937, the last Bali tiger was killed

The Bali tiger is one of two subspecies of Indonesian tiger that is now extinct, the other being the Javan tiger. Although the loss of both species is devastating to biodiversity, the Bali tiger was a particularly strong blow. It was the smallest of all tigers, measuring no more than seven-and-a-half feet long and weighing about 200 pounds.

Bali tigers only lived on the island of Bali, and when the forests began to be destroyed by people, their habitats were greatly reduced. With the population already waning, the tigers were hunted into extinction by Europeans during the Dutch colonial period. The last tiger was thought to be killed in 1937, although some tigers could have survived longer in the wild. It’s considered very unlikely that any still live today.

5. Golden Toad

The brightly colored Golden toad hasn’t been seen since 1989

Once abundant in the cloud forests of Costa Rica, the golden toad came to a sudden extinction in the 1980s, after its habitat was drastically altered due to climate change. No other amphibians are known to display the toad’s distinct color, which was described by its discoverer, Jay Savage, as “Day-Glo orange.” The toads’ skin was shiny and bright too, which only furthered the illusion that it had been dipped in paint. Only male toads had such bright coloring; females were, in fact, mostly black with a few orange spots.

Golden toads were seen frequently in the cloud forests after their discovery in 1966. But in the 1980s, they became less common. Since 1989, no one has seen a Golden Toad. For a long time people hoped the toads were burrowed underground, waiting for conditions to improve. But after no sightings were seen for years, the toad was placed on the extinct species list in 2004.

4. Aurochs

Aurochs, one of the ancestors of modern cattle, became extinct in the 17th century

We owe a lot to aurochs. They’re one of the ancestors of modern cattle, an animal which today supplies the world with meat and milk. Actually, aurochs and cattle are considered by many to be variations of same species. Some people would say it’s not fair to group aurochs with extinct animals, but since there are no longer any wild cattle in Europe, most scientists do consider aurochs to be wiped out. Aurochs also exhibited many features that aren’t found in modern domesticated cattle, like forward-bent horns and stripes down their backs.

Aurochs were first domesticated in Mesopotamia, but they remained prevalent in the wild of Northern Europe until the middle ages. Their numbers gradually dwindled due to overhunting and habitat destruction. Though they were fierce animals, aurochs eventually succumbed to the stress of being constantly hunted. The last of the aurochs lived in the early 1600s.

3. Great Auk

Great auks were once prevalent, but they were hunted to extinction in the 1800s.

Believe it or not, great auks were once called penguins before the modern bird took the title. But great auks and penguins aren’t closely related, despite their similar appearance. Great auks were the last surviving species of the genus Pinguinus, a group that once included many large, flightless birds. At one point, great auks were prevalent on many Northern Atlantic islands, including Greenland. They also wintered as far south as Florida!

Auks were always hunted for food and down by native people; they were evidently a valuable part of life for indigenous tribes, as multiple archeological items have been found made of their skins. It wasn’t until greater numbers of people moved to Scandinavia that they were sought out in large numbers for meat, eggs, skins, and feather down. The egg snatching was what sent the auks on the path to extinction; not only would hunters kill adult birds, but they would also collect the eggs for food. The last great auks lived in the 1850s.

2. Passenger Pigeon

Passenger pigeons became extinct in the early 20th century

North American passenger pigeons were once known as one of the spectacles of the continent. They flew in flocks that were billions strong, clouding the skies like locusts during their migration season. But massive killing campaigns wiped out the birds quickly; in a few centuries, the pigeon population that once numbered about five billion was completely destroyed.

Early flocks of passenger pigeons were sometimes more than a mile wide, taking hours to pass overhead. They were a huge threat to farmers, and their agricultural impact is part of what prompted the frenzied extermination of the species. Another reason they were killed in droves was for their cheap meat, which was sold to servants and slaves, two birds for a penny. Thousands of birds were killed at one time using poison, fire, and guns. The last flock of passenger pigeons, which numbered about 250,000 birds, was killed off in a matter of a few days in 1896; the killers had the distinct purpose of bringing the species to extinction. A few remaining birds were sighted through the early 20th century, but the species had entirely died out by 1910.

One good thing did come of the slaughter of passenger pigeons; their extinction led to an interest in the conservation movement. In part because of the passenger pigeon’s extinction, new legislation has helped other species survive in the United States.

1. Tahltan Bear Dog

Tahltan bear dogs became extinct after white settlers brought new dogs to America.

One of man’s best friends is extinct. Though it was not a species but a breed, the extinction of the bear dog comes as a big blow. The Tahltan bear dog was a canine companion to the American Indians in what is now Northern Canada before the arrival of European settlers. The dogs descended from those that crossed the land bridge to the Americas with people long ago. They were a huge part of native life; trained to stalk and hunt bears, Tahltans were fearless animals when at work, but they were loving companions otherwise. Reports indicate the bear dogs lived inside home structures with their human owners.

A bear dog’s defining characteristic was its tail, which was held upright with outward splaying fur. The dogs had thick, hard coats and were very intelligent. They were ritually bled before being led into the woods to hunt bears. When they found a bear, they would distract it long enough for the human hunters to find it and finish the kill. Tahltan bear dogs gradually became less common as white settlers brought other breeds of dog to the new world. Eventually, no pure Tahltans existed. But they will be missed.

The symbol frenzy started with the birth of the modern nation in the 1800s, when states began defining themselves with national identities. Since then, official (and unofficial) icons have taken off. Some national symbols are riddled with pomp and circumstance, but others are just plain weird. Read over this list of the top 10 familiar and bizarre national icons that most every country adopts, whether officially or just by popular consensus. You’ll learn that there’s no end in sight to patriotism.

10. The Flag

As the quintessential national icon, the flag of a country gets a lot of attention. It’s the most obvious icon for distinguishing nation-states, and it is flown over all official buildings in the country that it represents. Flags are the easiest ways to tell apart different national groups at international events, too. At the Olympic Games, for example, athletes from various countries are represented by the flags they carry. And their supporters wave national flags too.

In theory, there could be as many as six official flags for each country, three for land purposes and three for use at sea. On land, there are sometimes separate official flags for government use, civil flying, and wartime use. At sea, flags are called ensigns, and there are three separate kinds available there as well—also government, civil, and war. In many countries, such as the United States one national flag is used for all six purposes. However, there are some nations that maintain six different flags for all of the above situations.

Flags were first used thousands of years ago, before recorded history. But political flags are much younger. The first flags similar to modern state flags were used after political entities grew with the rise of civilizations, but they didn’t become popular until the Middle Ages. Early political flags changed often because they were often more associated with leaders than with the state itself. It’s not until more recent times that flags have been considered a permanent icon of a national state. Denmark boasts the oldest state flag still in use today. There are records of the Danish Scandinavian Cross as early as the 14th century!

9. Anthem or Hymn

National anthems are often sung at sporting events

It’s that song they play before sporting events and at special state ceremonies. You’ve got it, the national anthem. National anthems, sometimes called national hymns, are less tangible state icons than flags, but they’re still very popular. Odds are you know your country’s national anthem by heart.

Most non-European national anthems were made official shortly after a state became an official nation, usually in the 19th or 20th centuries. But since many countries adopted anthems shortly after being released from colonial influence, the large majority of national songs are composed in the European style. Only a few non-European countries use indigenous music in their songs of choice.

There’s a lot of variation in national anthems, especially in countries with multiple official languages and cultures. Some countries, like Switzerland, have adopted different anthem lyrics for each official language. The tune remains the same, but the meaning of the song varies slightly. Other countries simply don’t include lyrics in their anthems to solve the problem of language discrepancy. Spain, for instance, doesn’t sing along to its national anthem, “La Marcha Real.” Some countries just go with one language, even if many residents don’t speak it. For example, “Jana Gana Mana,” the anthem of India, has accompanying lyrics only in Bengali even though many other languages are spoken in the country.

8. National Colors

Most countries have national colors that are used to represent the country outside of standard icons like the flag. National sports teams might flaunt these colors, or people might decorate with them for national holidays. As you would expect, most countries pull their national colors from the state flag. The United States’ national colors, for example, are red, white, and blue because those shades are used in the country’s flag. In fact, the red-white-and-blue combination is common in many other countries as well, including France, Cuba, Croatia, Costa Rica, and Liberia; all of these countries use red, white, and blue in their flags as well.

Although flag colors make the most likely national color choices, some countries’ national colors have nothing at all to do with the shades of their iconic banners. Italy, for example, has a flag that is green, red, and white, but its national color is blue! The blue color of Italy was not a random choice, however. Blue was the official color of the House of Savoy, the ruling family of Italy until World War I. So in fact, the color blue has a longer standing history than the Italian flag. In real life, most Italians wear the colors of the flag to celebrate their country. But officially, blue should be the way to go.

7. Animal

The dragon is the national animal of Albania, China, and Armenia

Most nation-states have an animal that epitomizes the country. Animals are often officially recognized emblems of the nation, but not always. And sometimes, national animals aren’t even real! Albania, China, and Armenia, for example, all consider the dragon to be one of their national animals. And in the United Kingdom, the unicorn is among the list of nationally revered creatures, though not officially. Even though there won’t be any unicorn sightings anytime soon, the mythical creature still has a place in the UK’s iconography.

Needless to say, some national animals are more intimidating than others. South Korea’s tiger or Argentina’s cougar would surely beat one of Iran’s national animals—the Persian cat—in a fighting match. And the influence of the national animal varies from country to country too. In the United States, for example, the bald eagle graces the Presidential seal and is one of the country’s most recognizable symbols. And in Mauritius, the extinct Dodo stands on the left side of the official coat of arms. The Mexican Chihuahua, on the other hand, hasn’t made such an official appearance. The small dog is more a cultural symbol than anything else.

6. Food and Drink

Empanadas are a national food of Argentina

Empanadas are to Argentina as rice is to China. Both items have become thought of as national foods, even though they aren’t official. National dishes are an informal national emblem, and they aren’t used by the state itself. But people all over the world identify certain regions with foods, so the food emblem has stuck.

Some national foods and drinks are familiar stereotypes, like baguettes in France or couscous in Morocco. Others, like Tanzania’s octopus curry, just seem strange. But regardless of how well they’re known, national foods develop because they are popular in the region. They are actually more tied to the general area instead of a country, so calling foods national icons is a bit misleading. But people will continue to think of countries based on their culinary offerings, which is why many countries have embraced foods as a new kind of national symbol.

5. National Personifications

Personifications of Indian and the United States

Countries aren’t people, but sometimes they’re made to look that way. For hundreds of years, artists have rendered regions in personified images. These personifications aren’t official embl